The origins of criminal law.

Laws against wrongdoing may originate in justice intuitions that are part of universal human nature, according to the adaptationist theory of the origins of criminal law. This theory proposes that laws can be traced to neurocognitive mechanisms and ancestral selection pressures. According to this theory, laypeople can intuitively recreate the laws of familiar and unfamiliar cultures, even when they lack the relevant explicit knowledge. Here, to evaluate this prediction, we conduct experiments with Chinese and Sumerian laws that are millennia old; stimuli that preserve in fossil-like form the legal thinking of ancient lawmakers. We show that laypeople's justice intuitions closely match the logic and content of those archaic laws. We also show covariation across different types of justice intuitions: interpersonal devaluation of offenders, judgements of moral wrongness, mock-legislated punishments and perpetrator shame-suggesting that multiple justice intuitions may be regulated by a common social-evaluative psychology. Although alternative explanations of these findings are possible, we argue that they are consistent with the assumption that the origin of criminal law is a cognitively sophisticated human nature.

Euthanasia requests in a Canadian psychiatric outpatient clinic: A case series part 2 of the McGill University euthanasia in psychiatry case series.

The Canadian province of Quebec enacted in 2014 a legislation that permitted medical assistance in dying (MAID) under specific conditions and the rest of Canada followed suit in June 2016. In this article, which is the second in a set of case series of requests for MAID in Canadian psychiatry, we present the cases of two patients who made a request for MAID to their treating psychiatrist in an outpatient clinic. While one is advanced in age and suffering from intense physical and psychic pain with little if any psychiatric comorbidity, the other is a young and medically healthy woman who nonetheless suffers from extensive psychiatric comorbidity. This article discusses both cases in light of recent scientific literature and case law that is slowly emerging in Canada, focusing on the concepts of the end of life and its legal definition as well as psychic suffering and its management in those wishing to receive physician-assisted dying. In our conclusion, we stress the need to clarify the definition of treatment resistance, the necessity to determine each physician's role when many are involved, as well as the importance of treating psychic pain holistically, which can sometimes require going beyond standard psychiatric care.

Eutanasia, empatía, compasión y Derechos Humanos / Euthanasia, empathy, compassion and Human Rights

Lo problemático en el estudio de la empatía es su ausencia ante el sufrimiento ajeno. La eutanasia resalta el conflicto moral sobre sufrir o dejar de sufrir frente una enfermedad irreversible y dolorosa. Analizaré el conflicto que presenta el respeto pleno por el principio de dignidad humana, establecido en el artículo 51 del Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación Argentina, en relación con las directivas médicas anticipadas que impliquen una práctica eutanásica que, en función del artículo 60 del mismo cuerpo legal, se deberán tener por no escritas. Dos preguntas cerradas guiarán el análisis: ¿Menoscaba a la dignidad humana la eutanasia, en su modalidad activa? ¿Resulta justa o injusta la restricción a la autonomía personal en relación a la eutanasia? Finalmente, exploraré el rol de la compasión en la eutanasia (AU)

What is problematic in the study of empathy is his absence to the suffering of others. Euthanasia highlights the moral conflict about suffering or stop suffering facing at an irreversible and painful illness. I will analyze the conflict that has full respect of human dignity, laid down in Article 51 of the Civil and Commercial Code of Argentina, in relation to advance medical directives that involve a practice euthanasia, according to the Article 60 of the same legal body, should not be written. Two closed questions will guide this analysis in order to reflect on them: Does euthanasia undermines the human dignity, in its active mode? Is it fair or unfair the restriction of personal autonomy in relation to euthanasia? Finally, I will explore what the role of compassion in euthanasia (AU)

Determinants of favourable opinions about euthanasia in a sample of French physicians.

BACKGROUND: The question whether euthanasia should be legalised has led to substantial public debate in France. The objective of this study in a sample of French physicians was to establish the potential determinants of a favourable opinion about euthanasia in general and when faced with a specific situation as embodied in the Humbert affair. METHODS: The study was a cross-sectional survey investigating two different samples of medical doctors: (1) those specialised in palliative care and affiliated to the French Society for Patient Accompaniment and Palliative Care; (2) medical interns (medical doctors in training course) in a French medical university (Marseille). A questionnaire was sent (email) to each voluntary participant including sociodemographics, professional status, mention of believing in God, and opinion about euthanasia (the question was designed to assess the general opinion about euthanasia and the opinion about a specific case, the Vincent Humbert' case (a man who was rendered quadriplegic, blind, and mute after an accident and has requested euthanasia). RESULTS: A total of 413 physicians participated in the research (participation rate: 48.5%). Less than half of the population were favourable to euthanasia in general and almost two-thirds of the population were favourable to Vincent Humbert's request for euthanasia. Based on the multivariate analysis, individuals believing in God and being a medical intern were significant independent factors linked to having a favourable opinion about euthanasia in general and about the Vincent Humbert's request. DISCUSSION: There is still no study in France on the development of opinion about euthanasia and its impact. The issue goes beyond the strictly professional sphere and involves broader socio-political stakes. These stakes do not necessarily take into account medical practices and experiences or the desires of end-of-life patients. The professional upheaval that the future French legal framework will doubtlessly trigger will require further research. CONCLUSION: The professional upheaval that the future French legal framework will doubtlessly trigger will require further research.

[Bioethics is dead. Long live medical ethics!]. / La Bioética ha Muerto. ¡Viva la Ética Médica!

The purpose of this paper is to show a paradigmatic crisis in academic bioethics. Since an important part of bioethicists began to relativize the ethical prohibition of killing an innocent human being, one way or another they began to ally with the death industry: the business of abortion, and then that of euthanasia. The thesis of this paper is that by crossing that Rubicon bioethics has been corrupted and has lost its connection to the ethical, political and legal discourse. One can only hope that it will revive from its ashes if it retakes the ″taboo″ of the sacredness of human life, something for which medical ethics could provide invaluable help, because it still keeps the notion that ″a doctor should not kill″, although in an excessively ″discreet″ and somehow ″ashamed″ way. However, conscientious doctors know more about ethics than most bioethicists.

The actuality and the historical background of covert Euthanasia in Albania.

Euthanasia is not legal in Albania, yet there is strong evidence that euthanising a terminally ill patient is not an unknown concept for the Albanians. The first mentioned case of euthanasia is found in 7(th) century AD mythology and during the communist regime (1944-1989), allegations of euthanising political prisoners and possible rivals in the struggle for power have widely been formulated. There is a trend among relatives and laymen taking care of terminally ill patients to apply tranquilisers in an abusive dosage, or even against medical advice, aiming at sedating the ailing patient. These actions, the refusal to keep on consistently applying life prolonging treatment, and other data, suggest that covert euthanasia is a practice and legal interventions are needed towards formalising it. This might well improve end-of-life care standards, since the inadequacy of structures, such as hospices and residential asylums, is becoming a major drawback in the struggle for dignity and accessible socio-medical help for third age persons and terminal patients.

Euthanasia: killing as due care?

On 10 April 2001, the Netherlands was the first country to pass a law on the killing of patients at their request (euthanasia), which took effect on 1 April 2002. Belgium followed and passed a euthanasia law on 16 May 2002, which took effect on 23 September 2002 and is even more liberal than the Dutch one. Physicians will be exempted from criminal liability provided they satisfy the so-called 'due care criteria'. However, in medical history euthanasia has never been part of the medical duty of care. Instead, the goals of medicine have always been the relief of pain and suffering. The current article provides insights into the Dutch, Belgian and Oregon euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide practices and reflects upon some central medical and legal documents on the regulation of euthanasia and the provision of palliative care. Modern palliative care includes both the delivery of competent palliative skills and a virtuous attitude of compassionate caring about the terminally ill patient as an autonomous person. Here, the author rejects killing as due care and proposes a novel concept of 'RAHME' (Aramaic: compassion, love, mercy), which calls for a holistically oriented concept where physicians act as companions to the terminally ill and dying patients.

[Dying with dignity-between autonomy and care. A contribution to the current legal discussion in Germany]. / Sterben in Würde-zwischen Autonomie und FürsorgeEin Beitrag zur aktuellen juristischen Diskussion.

The juridical discussion about "dying with dignity" in Germany is concentrated on the aspect of autonomy of the patients and the juridical instruments of "power of attorney". The aspects of care for dying patients and a multidimensional concept of dignity are in danger of being neglected. In the context of the discussion of rationing in the health sector the accentuation of the aspect of autonomy could support the development of new acceptance of euthanasia and the stoping of treatment. In this essay the current discussion in Germany will be shown with consideration of current legal decisions.

[Euthanasia]. / Eutanazija.

The paper gives a historical overview, and describes psychosociological constellation and tactics of the euthanasia movement. Further, medicosocial experiment and medicolegal engineering which preceded it and followed it are presented on the example of euthanasia in The Netherlands. Legal, ethical, formally logical and psychological arguments against euthanasia are presented. The article concludes with the opinion that it was the duty of the World Medical Association to protect medical profession with the procedure of demedicalization of euthanasia, and to appropriately punish the Royal Dutch Medical Society for breaking professional ethical codex in its essential part, which is the basis of the very identity of medical profession.

Report of the Northern California Conference for Guidelines on Aid-in-Dying: definitions, differences, convergences, conclusions.

In September 1996, the Stanford University Center for Biomedical Ethics convened a conference entitled "Comprehensive Care of the Terminally Ill: The Northern California Consensus Development Conference for Guidelines on Aid-in-Dying." The regionally based, multidisciplinary conference gathered people from a variety of disciplines and diverse perspectives on physician aid-in-dying. This report documents important points of convergence, disagreement, and uncertainty that emerged from the conference and provides commentary on crucial issues: the definition of terminal illness, ensuring adequate palliative care, psychiatric challenges, coping with family pressures, the doctor-patient relationship, the managed care context, the role of ethics committees, and institutional challenges. Should physician aid-in-dying become a legal practice in California, the report will provide guidance to health care organizations, health professionals, and public policy officials engaged in local or state guideline or policy development.

Euthanasia.

This article provides a brief review of the history of euthanasia. The problems involved in withholding or withdrawing treatment, physician-assisted suicide, and arguments for or against euthanasia are discussed. Changes in both societal and physician attitudes and practices are presented.

Los médicos y el código penal

La responsabilidad penal. La ley del ejercicio profesional. Iatrogenia. Sanciones administrativas; penas; la inhabilitación; su quebrantamiento. El juez y el perito: apreciación de la inimputabilidad. Causas de justificación; el estado de necesidad; el ejercicio de un derecho o cumplimiento de un deber; el consentimiento; regulación de la necesidad médica. Lesiones quirúrgicas o terapéuticas. Homicidios y lesiones culposas; la imprudencia, la negligencia, la impericia. Algunas omisiones punibles: la de vacunar y la de aceptar transfusiones de sangre. Homicio y lesiones dolosas. Eutanasia y eugenesia. Abortos punibles e impunes. Argumentos en pro y en contra de la incriminación. Abandono de persona y omisión de auxilio. Homosexualismo y cambio de sexo: el consentimiento, la necesidad y el ejercicio del derecho. Trasplante de órganos y de material anatómico. Inseminación y fecundación artificial. Certificados médicos falsos. Privación ilegítima de la libertad. Supresión y suposición de estado civil. Secreto profesional y obligación de denunciar delitos. Encubrimiento. Falsos testimonios y peritos. Prescripción infiel de estupefacientes. Uso de drogas prohibidas en el deporte. Ejercicio ilegal de las medicina: curanderismo, charlatanerismo y prestación del nombre. Envenenamientos y otros delitos contra la salud pública. Examen ginecológico y abuso deshonesto

Los médicos y el código penal

La responsabilidad penal. La ley del ejercicio profesional. Iatrogenia. Sanciones administrativas; penas; la inhabilitación; su quebrantamiento. El juez y el perito: apreciación de la inimputabilidad. Causas de justificación; el estado de necesidad; el ejercicio de un derecho o cumplimiento de un deber; el consentimiento; regulación de la necesidad médica. Lesiones quirúrgicas o terapéuticas. Homicidios y lesiones culposas; la imprudencia, la negligencia, la impericia. Algunas omisiones punibles: la de vacunar y la de aceptar transfusiones de sangre. Homicio y lesiones dolosas. Eutanasia y eugenesia. Abortos punibles e impunes. Argumentos en pro y en contra de la incriminación. Abandono de persona y omisión de auxilio. Homosexualismo y cambio de sexo: el consentimiento, la necesidad y el ejercicio del derecho. Trasplante de órganos y de material anatómico. Inseminación y fecundación artificial. Certificados médicos falsos. Privación ilegítima de la libertad. Supresión y suposición de estado civil. Secreto profesional y obligación de denunciar delitos. Encubrimiento. Falsos testimonios y peritos. Prescripción infiel de estupefacientes. Uso de drogas prohibidas en el deporte. Ejercicio ilegal de las medicina: curanderismo, charlatanerismo y prestación del nombre. Envenenamientos y otros delitos contra la salud pública. Examen ginecológico y abuso deshonesto