Natural Products from Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino: A Review on Their Structural Analysis, Quality Control, Pharmacology, and Pharmacokinetics.

The calyxes and fruits of Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino (P. alkekengi), a medicinal and edible plant, are frequently used as heat-clearing and detoxifying agents in thousands of Chinese medicine prescriptions. For thousands of years in China, they have been widely used in clinical practice to treat throat disease, hepatitis, and bacillary dysentery. This systematic review summarizes their structural analysis, quality control, pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics. Furthermore, the possible development trends and perspectives for future research studies on this medicinal plant are discussed. Relevant information on the calyxes and fruits of P. alkekengi was collected from electronic databases, Chinese herbal classics, and Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Moreover, information was collected from ancient documents in China. The components isolated and identified in P. alkekengi include steroids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, nucleosides, terpenoids, megastigmane, aliphatic derivatives, organic acids, coumarins, and sucrose esters. Steroids, particularly physalins and flavonoids, are the major characteristic and bioactive ingredients in P. alkekengi. According to the literature, physalins are synthesized by the mevalonate and 2-C-methyl-d-erythritol-4-phosphate pathways, and flavonoids are synthesized by the phenylpropanoid pathway. Since the chemical components and pharmacological effects of P. alkekengi are complex and varied, there are different standards for the evaluation of its quality and efficacy. In most cases, the analysis was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet detection. A pharmacological study showed that the crude extracts and isolated compounds from P. alkekengi had extensive in vitro and in vivo biological activities (e.g., anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, immunosuppressive, antibacterial, anti-leishmanial, anti-asthmatic, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidative, anti-malarial, anti-Alzheimer's disease, and vasodilatory). Moreover, the relevant anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor mechanisms were elucidated. The reported activities indicate the great pharmacological potential of P. alkekengi. Similarly, studies on the pharmacokinetics of specific compounds will also contribute to the progress of clinical research in this setting.

RNA-Binding Protein MAC5A Is Required for Gibberellin-Regulated Stamen Development.

The development of floral organs is coordinated by an elaborate network of homeotic genes, and gibberellin (GA) signaling is involved in floral organ development; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. In the present study, we found that MOS4-ASSOCIATED COMPLEX 5A (MAC5A), which is a protein containing an RNA-binding motif, was involved in the development of sepals, petals, and stamens; either the loss or gain of MAC5A function resulted in stamen malformation and a reduced seed set. The exogenous application of GA considerably exacerbated the defects in mac5a null mutants, including fewer stamens and male sterility. MAC5A was predominantly expressed in pollen grains and stamens, and overexpression of MAC5A affected the expression of homeotic genes such as APETALA1 (AP1), AP2, and AGAMOUS (AG). MAC5A may interact with RABBIT EARS (RBE), a repressor of AG expression in Arabidopsis flowers. The petal defect in rbe null mutants was at least partly rescued in mac5a rbe double mutants. These findings suggest that MAC5A is a novel factor that is required for the normal development of stamens and depends on the GA signaling pathway.

Phytosulfokine α (PSKα) delays senescence and reinforces SUMO1/SUMO E3 ligase SIZ1 signaling pathway in cut rose flowers (Rosa hybrida cv. Angelina).

Roses are widely used as cut flowers worldwide. Petal senescence confines the decorative quality of cut rose flowers, an impressively considerable economic loss. Herein, we investigated the SUMO1/SUMO E3 ligase SIZ1 signaling pathway during bud opening, and petal senescence of cut rose flowers. Our results exhibited that the higher expression of SUMO1 and SUMO E3 ligase SIZ1 during bud opening was accompanied by lower endogenous H2O2 accumulation arising from higher expression and activities of SOD, CAT, APX, and GR, promoting proline accumulation by increasing P5CS expression and activity and enhancing GABA accumulation by increasing GAD expression and activity. In harvested flowers, lower expressions of SUMO1 and SUMO E3 ligase SIZ1 during petal senescence were associated with higher endogenous H2O2 accumulation due to lower expression and activities of SOD, CAT, APX, and GR. Therefore, promoting the activity of the GABA shunt pathway as realized by higher expression and activities of GABA-T and SSADH accompanied by increasing OAT expression and activity for sufficiently supply proline in rose flowers during petal senescence might serve as an endogenous antisenescence mechanism for slowing down petals senescence by avoiding endogenous H2O2 accumulation. Following phytosulfokine α (PSKα) application, postponing petal senescence in cut rose flowers could be ascribed to higher expression of SUMO1 and SUMO E3 ligase SIZ1 accompanied by higher expression and activities of SOD, CAT, APX, and GR, higher activity of GABA shunt pathway as realized by higher expression and activities of GAD, GABA-T, and SSADH, higher expression and activities of P5CS and OAT for supplying proline and higher expression of HSP70 and HSP90. Therefore, our results highlight the potential of the PSKα as a promising antisenescence signaling peptide in the floriculture industry for postponing senescence and extending the vase life of cut rose flowers.

Pre-harvest spray of GABA and spermine delays postharvest senescence and alleviates chilling injury of gerbera cut flowers during cold storage.

Short vase life, capitulum wilting, neck bending, and postharvest chilling injury (CI) are major disorders have negative impact on quality and marketing of gerbera cut flowers. Low storage temperatures prolonging the vase life, but on the other hand leads serious CI which decreases the quality and consumer preferences. Spermine (SPER) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were identified as anti-aging factors delay the senescence and elevate the chilling tolerance in many species. Greenhouse-grown gerbera cv. 'Stanza' sprayed with 2 mM SPER and 1 mM GABA twice (2 T) or thrice (3 T). Cut flowers were stored at 1.5 °C and 8 °C postharvest to study the effects of GABA and SPER on senescence and CI. Vase life, CI and quality of cut flowers were improved by GABA and SPER treatments. No CI was observed in GABA-treated flowers at 1.5 °C; while, flowers sprayed with water showed severe CI. GABA treatments efficiently prolonged the vase life for 6-7 days more than the control (15 days). GABA and SPER increased the fresh weight, solution uptake, protein and proline contents, catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase activities, while decreased the electrolyte leakage, H2O2, and malondialdehyde contents, polyphenol oxidase, lipoxygenase, and phospholipase D activities. GABA and SPER significantly prolonged the vase life and prevented degradation of proteins and chilling damage and increased capacity of detoxifying and scavenging of H2O2 and reactive oxygen species (ROS), led to alleviate the negative consequences of the senescence and CI.

EPIP-Evoked Modifications of Redox, Lipid, and Pectin Homeostasis in the Abscission Zone of Lupine Flowers.

Yellow lupine is a great model for abscission-related research given that excessive flower abortion reduces its yield. It has been previously shown that the EPIP peptide, a fragment of LlIDL (INFLORESCENCE DEFICIENT IN ABSCISSION) amino-acid sequence, is a sufficient molecule to induce flower abortion, however, the question remains: What are the exact changes evoked by this peptide locally in abscission zone (AZ) cells? Therefore, we used EPIP peptide to monitor specific modifications accompanied by early steps of flower abscission directly in the AZ. EPIP stimulates the downstream elements of the pathway-HAESA and MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE6 and induces cellular symptoms indicating AZ activation. The EPIP treatment disrupts redox homeostasis, involving the accumulation of H2O2 and upregulation of the enzymatic antioxidant system including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase. A weakening of the cell wall structure in response to EPIP is reflected by pectin demethylation, while a changing pattern of fatty acids and acyl lipids composition suggests a modification of lipid metabolism. Notably, the formation of a signaling molecule-phosphatidic acid is induced locally in EPIP-treated AZ. Collectively, all these changes indicate the switching of several metabolic and signaling pathways directly in the AZ in response to EPIP, which inevitably leads to flower abscission.

Comparative transcriptomic analyses of normal and peloric mutant flowers in Cymbidium goeringii Rchb.f identifies differentially expressed genes associated with floral development.

Cymbidium geringii has high ornamental and economic importance. Its traits, including flower shape, size, and color, are highly sought by orchid breeders. Gaining insights into the molecular basis of C. geringi flower development would accelerate genetic improvement of other orchids. Methods and Results: Here, C. goeringii RNA was purified from normal and peloric mutant flowers, and cDNA libraries constructed for Illumina sequencing. We generated 329,156,782 clean reads, integrated them, and then assembled into 236,811 unigenes averaging 595 bp long. A total of 11,992 differentially expressed genes s, of which 6119 were upregulated and 5873 downregulated, were uncovered in peloric mutant flower buds relative to normal flower buds. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment assessments posited that these differentially expressed genes are associated with "Photosynthesis", "Linoleic acid metabolism", as well as "Plant hormone signal transduction" cascades. The DEGs were designated to 12 remarkably enriched GO terms, and 16 cell wall associated GO terms. The expression level of 16 determined genes were verified using RT-qPCR. Conclusions: Our gene expression data may be used to study the regulatory mechanism of flower organ development in C. geringi.

Lanthanum delays senescence and improves postharvest quality in cut tulip (Tulipa gesneriana L.) flowers.

We tested two sources of lanthanum (La), LaCl3 and La(NO3)3 × 6H2O at a concentration of 40 µM each, in the treatment solution of cut flowers of 15 tulip (Tulipa gesneriana L.) cultivars. Ascorbic acid (AsA; 0.2 g/L) was used as a reference solution, while distilled water was evaluated as an absolute control. With both La sources, bud length and diameter, and stem length were increased; as a result, stem curvature was also significantly increased with La treatments. The cultivars Laura Fygi and Rosario registered the highest relative stem elongation. Lalibela and Acropolis displayed the greatest stem curvature on the last day in vase. At 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 days after cutting, the highest solution uptake was recorded in flower stems treated with LaCl3, surpassing the control by 5, 11, 15, 18 and 24%, respectively. The relative stem elongations observed were 21.3, 27.4, 35.2 and 35.5% in the control, AsA, LaCl3 and La(NO3)3, respectively. The mean solution uptake per gram of stem fresh biomass weight was 1.44, 1.44, 1.71 and 1.54 mL in the control, AsA, LaCl3 and La(NO3)3, respectively. LaCl3 significantly increased the bud length and solution uptake of flower stems, while La(NO3)3 × 6H2O increased stem fresh weight.

Development and screening of EMS mutants with altered seed oil content or fatty acid composition in Brassica napus.

Brassica napus is an important oilseed crop in the world, and the mechanism of seed oil biosynthesis in B. napus remains unclear. In order to study the mechanism of oil biosynthesis and generate germplasms for breeding, an ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutant population with ~100 000 M2 lines was generated using Zhongshuang 11 as the parent line. The EMS-induced genome-wide mutations in M2-M4 plants were assessed. The average number of mutations including single nucleotide polymorphisms and insertion/deletion in M2-M4 was 21 177, 28 675 and 17 915, respectively. The effects of the mutations on gene function were predicted in M2-M4 mutants, respectively. We screened the seeds from 98 113 M2 lines, and 9415 seed oil content and fatty acid mutants were identified. We further confirmed 686 mutants with altered seed oil content and fatty acid in advanced generation (M4 seeds). Five representative M4 mutants with increased oleic acid were re-sequenced, and the potential causal variations in FAD2 and ROD1 genes were identified. This study generated and screened a large scale of B. napus EMS mutant population, and the identified mutants could provide useful genetic resources for the study of oil biosynthesis and genetic improvement of seed oil content and fatty acid composition of B. napus in the future.

Lanthanum Prolongs Vase Life of Cut Tulip Flowers by Increasing Water Consumption and Concentrations of Sugars, Proteins and Chlorophylls.

We evaluated the effect of separately adding two sources of lanthanum (La), LaCl3 and La(NO3)3 × 6H2O at a concentration of 40 µM each, to the preservative solution of 15 cut tulip flower varieties. Ascorbic acid (AsA; 0.2 g/L) was used as a reference solution, while distilled water was used as control. The variety Laura Fygi recorded the longest vase life with 13 days. The highest water consumption per gram of stem fresh biomass weight (FBW) (2.5 mL) was observed in the variety Violet Beauty, whereas the lowest (1.098 mL) was recorded in Pink Impression. At the end of the vase life period, higher concentrations of total soluble sugars in petals and total soluble proteins in leaves were recorded in La-treated stems, compared to the AsA treatment and the control. Additionally, La(NO3)3 × 6H2O supply increased the fresh weight of stems in vase and prolonged vase life. Moreover, this treatment resulted in the highest foliar concentration of chlorophylls at the end of vase life. Therefore, La increases tulip flower vase life as a consequence of improving the concentrations of some vital biomolecules.

Beyond graphene oxide acidity: Novel insights into graphene related materials effects on the sexual reproduction of seed plants.

Graphene related materials (GRMs) are currently being used in products and devices of everyday life and this strongly increases the possibility of their ultimate release into the environment as waste items. GRMs have several effects on plants, and graphene oxide (GO) in particular, can affect pollen germination and tube growth due to its acidic properties. Despite the socio-economic importance of sexual reproduction in seed plants, the effect of GRMs on this process is still largely unknown. Here, Corylus avellana L. (common Hazel) pollen was germinated in-vitro with and without 1-100 µg mL-1 few-layer graphene (FLG), GO and reduced GO (rGO) to identify GRMs effects alternative to the acidification damage caused by GO. At 100 µg mL-1 both FLG and GO decreased pollen germination, however only GO negatively affected pollen tube growth. Furthermore, GO adsorbed about 10 % of the initial Ca2+ from germination media accounting for a further decrease in germination of 13 % at the pH created by GO. In addition, both FLG and GO altered the normal tip-focused reactive oxygen species (ROS) distribution along the pollen tube. The results provided here help to understand GRMs effect on the sexual reproduction of seed plants and to address future in-vivo studies.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of R2R3-MYB family in Hypericum perforatum under diverse abiotic stresses.

The R2R3-MYB family is one of the largest families of plant transcription factor playing significant roles in plant growth. Although this gene family has been studied in many species, the R2R3-MYBs in Hypericum perforatum which is the first sequenced species in Malpighiales have not been analyzed. A total of 109 R2R3-MYB genes were identified in H. perforatum and clustered into 36 clades. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that most of the R2R3-MYB genes were involved in biological processes. Four kinds of cis-acting elements were found within the promoter regions, the majority of which were related to the stress responses and plant growth/development. The transcriptome data of different tissues (root, stems, leaves, and flowers) showed that the spatial expression profiles of R2R3-MYBs were different. Also, real-time quantitative PCR analysis revealed that eleven stress-related R2R3-MYB genes showed specific expression patterns under diverse treatments. In addition, sub-cellular localization analysis indicated that five significant proteins HpMYB45, HpMYB48, HpMYB55, HpMYB63, and HpMYB70 were all localized in the nucleus. This study was the first report on identification and characterization of R2R3-MYB gene family in H. perforatum. It facilitated the identification of tissue-preferential and stress-related genes and provided deep insights into the function of R2R3-MYBs in H. perforatum.

Defense of pyrethrum flowers: repelling herbivores and recruiting carnivores by producing aphid alarm pheromone.

(E)-ß-Farnesene (EßF) is the predominant constituent of the alarm pheromone of most aphid pest species. Moreover, natural enemies of aphids use EßF to locate their aphid prey. Some plant species emit EßF, potentially as a defense against aphids, but field demonstrations are lacking. Here, we present field and laboratory studies of flower defense showing that ladybird beetles are predominantly attracted to young stage-2 pyrethrum flowers that emitted the highest and purest levels of EßF. By contrast, aphids were repelled by EßF emitted by S2 pyrethrum flowers. Although peach aphids can adapt to pyrethrum plants in the laboratory, aphids were not recorded in the field. Pyrethrum's (E)-ß-farnesene synthase (EbFS) gene is strongly expressed in inner cortex tissue surrounding the vascular system of the aphid-preferred flower receptacle and peduncle, leading to elongated cells filled with EßF. Aphids that probe these tissues during settlement encounter and ingest plant EßF, as evidenced by the release in honeydew. These EßF concentrations in honeydew induce aphid alarm responses, suggesting an extra layer of this defense. Collectively, our data elucidate a defensive mimicry in pyrethrum flowers: the developmentally regulated and tissue-specific EßF accumulation and emission both prevents attack by aphids and recruits aphid predators as bodyguards.

Effects of manganese stress on phenology and biomass allocation in Xanthium strumarium from metalliferous and non-metalliferous sites.

Xanthium strumarium is an annual pseudometallophyte. To reveal the mechanisms of this species to adapt to metallicolous environmental conditions, phenological traits and biomass allocation of metallicolous and non-metallicolous populations of X. strumarium under six Mn2+ concentrations by pot culture experiments were performed. The results showed that both time to bolting and time to fruit setting in the metallicolous population were earlier than those in the non-metallicolous population. The number of flowers, fruits, seeds and 1000-seed weight in the metallicolous population were higher than those in the non-metallicolous population under Mn stress. Reproductive allocation and harvest index in the metallicolous population were higher than those in the non-metallicolous population. Furthermore, all the Mn concentrations in leaves, stems, roots, and fruits of the metallicolous population were higher than the counterparts of non-metallicolous population. These results suggested that metallicolous population had higher tolerance to Mn stress than non-metallicolous population, the earlier flowering and fruiting, and the enhancement in reproductive allocation may contribute to plant tolerance to Mn toxicity for X. strumarium.

Physiochemical properties of petunia edible flowers grown under saline conditions and their postharvest performance under modified atmosphere packaging and ethanol application.

BACKGROUND: Edible flowers have both great nutritional value and sensory appeal; however, their shelf-life is limited to a few days because they are highly perishable. RESULTS: The impact of postharvest ethanol (ET) treatment and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on the quality and storage of edible flowers collected from short-term salt-stressed plants was tested. Hydroponically grown petunia (Petunia x hybrita L.) plants were subjected to salinity (0-50-100 mmol L-1 NaCl) and harvested flowers were stored for up to 14 days in MAP and/ET vapours. The salinity of 100 mmol L-1 NaCl decreased plant biomass and negatively affected physiological processes as a result of stomata closure. Flower polyphenols, antioxidants, carotenoids and anthocyanins increased with 50 mmol L-1 of NaCl, indicating a higher nutritional value. Short-term exposure of petunia to salinity decreased the flower N, K and Ca concentrations. During storage for 7 days, salinity lead to deteriorated flowers that showed browning as a result of tissue breakdown, whereas CO2 production and weight loss were unaffected by salinity. After 14 days of storage, salinity decreased flower respiration and increased weight loss, whereas ET application completely destroyed the flowers. Carotenoids and anthocyanins were decreased by a combination of salinity and ET. Petunia flowers revealed the induction of both non-enzymatic (i.e. proline content) and enzymatic (catalase) mechanisms to overcome the stress caused by salinity at harvest stage and/or ethanol at storage. CONCLUSION: The results of the present study demonstrate that a short-stress salinity of 50 mmol L-1 NaCl can be used for petunia growth and also that flowers of nutritional value can be stored for up to 7 days, whereas ET application failed to preserve petunia flowers. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

OsERF101, an ERF family transcription factor, regulates drought stress response in reproductive tissues.

KEY MESSAGE: An ERF transcription factor OsERF101 is predominantly expressed in rice reproductive tissues and plays an important role in improving rice seed setting rate under drought stress. Drought reduces grain yield due to the cumulative damage effects to plant vegetative and reproductive developmental processes. However, the genes involved in these processes are still not completely understood. In this study, we identified a gene named OsERF101 as an important positive regulator in the adaptive responses to dehydration stress during the reproductive and vegetative stages. This gene encodes a member of APETALA2/Ethylene-Responsive Element Binding Protein (AP2/EREBP) family. OsERF101 was predominantly expressed in flowers, particularly in the tapetum and microspores under normal growth conditions. It was induced by drought, PEG6000 and abscisic acid (ABA) in leaves. During the vegetative stage, OsERF101-overexpression plants were more resistant to osmotic stress caused by PEG6000 compared to the control plants. They also had higher survival and seed setting rates than wild type when subjected to reproductive-stage drought stress. Further physiological analysis revealed that the pollen fertility was improved in the overexpression lines, while the knockout mutant and RNAi lines showed reduced pollen fertility and compromised drought tolerance during the reproductive stage. The increased proline content and peroxidase activity in OsERF101-overexpression plants might contribute to the improved drought-tolerance of plants. In addition, OsERF101-overexpression plants displayed ABA susceptible phenotype, in which the expression levels of ABA-responsive genes RD22, LEA3, and PODs were up-regulated. Taken together, our results indicate that OsERF101 is a gene that regulates dehydration responses during the vegetative and reproductive stages.

Hummingbirds and bumble bees exposed to neonicotinoid and organophosphate insecticides in the Fraser Valley, British Columbia, Canada.

To measure exposure to neonicotinoid and other pesticides in avian pollinators, we made novel use of cloacal fluid and fecal pellets from rufous (Selasphorus rufus) and Anna's (Calypte anna) hummingbirds living near blueberry fields in the Fraser River Valley and Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. To examine on-farm exposure to pesticides in invertebrate pollinators, we also collected bumble bees native to Canada (Bombus mixtus, Bombus flavifrons, and Bombus melanopygus), their pollen, and blueberry leaves and flowers from within conventionally sprayed and organic blueberry farms. By sites and sample type, the results reported in the present study represent pooled samples (n = 1). In 2015 to 2016, the combined concentration of the neonicotinoid insecticides imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin detected in hummingbird cloacal fluid from sites near conventionally sprayed blueberry fields was 3.63 ng/mL (ppb). Among the 18 compounds measured in fecal pellets, including one neonicotinoid (imidacloprid), only piperonyl butoxide was detected (1.47-5.96 ng/g). Piperonyl butoxide is a cytochrome P450 inhibitor applied with some insecticides to increase their toxic efficacy. Only diazinon was detected in bumble bees (0.197 ng/g), whereas diazinon (1.54-1.7 ng/g) and imidacloprid (up to 18.4 ng/g) were detected in pollen collected from bumble bees including the bees from organic sites located near conventionally sprayed blueberry farms. Imidacloprid was also detected at 5.16 ng/g in blueberry flowers collected 1 yr post spray from 1 of 6 conventionally sprayed blueberry farms. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:2143-2152. © 2018 SETAC.

Implementation of CsLIS/NES in linalool biosynthesis involves transcript splicing regulation in Camellia sinensis.

Volatile terpenoids produced in tea plants (Camellia sinensis) are airborne signals interacting against other ecosystem members, but also pleasant odorants of tea products. Transcription regulation (including transcript processing) is pivotal for plant volatile terpenoid production. In this study, a terpene synthase gene CsLIS/NES was recovered from tea plants (C. sinensis cv. "Long-Men Xiang"). CsLIS/NES transcription regulation resulted in 2 splicing forms: CsLIS/NES-1 and CsLIS/NES-2 lacking a 305 bp-fragment at N-terminus, both producing (E)-nerolidol and linalool in vitro. Transgenic tobacco studies and a gene-specific antisense oligo-deoxynucleotide suppression applied in tea leaves indicated that CsLIS/NES-1, localized in chloroplasts, acted as linalool synthase, whereas CsLIS/NES-2 localized in cytosol, functioned as a potential nerolidol synthase, but not linalool synthase. Expression patterns of the 2 transcript isoforms in tea were distinctly different and responded differentially to the application of stress signal molecule methyl jasmonate. Leaf expression of CsLIS/NES-1, but not CsLIS/NES-2, was significantly induced by methyl jasmonate. Our data indicated that distinct transcript splicing regulation patterns, together with subcellular compartmentation of CsLIS/NE-1 and CsLIS/NE-2 implemented the linalool biosynthesis regulation in tea plants in responding to endogenous and exogenous regulatory factors.

The Microvine, a plant model to study the effect of vine-shoot extract on the accumulation of glycosylated aroma precursors in grapes.

BACKGROUND: The Microvine plant model displays unique reproductive organ behavior and is suitable for grapevine fruit physiological studies, allowing one to undertake studies up to five times more rapidly than the current situation with grapevines. Recently, vine-shoot aqueous extracts, which have an interesting phenolic and aroma composition, have been proposed as viticultural biostimulants, since their post-veraison foliar application to grapevines impacts the wine aroma profile. Using Microvines, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of vine-shoot extract foliar application on 21 stages of grape development. The application was carried out from BBCH 53 (inflorescences clearly visible) to BBCH 85 (softening of berries) to reveal stage-specific responses of the accumulation of glycosylated aroma precursors at BBCH 89 (berries ripe for harvest), the phenological stage selected to study the treatment effect. RESULTS: Microvine use made it possible to carry out 15 sampling time points during 86 days of the experiment, which were established by the cumulative degree days (CDD) parameter. The results confirmed that vine-shoot extract treatment had a positive impact on total glycosylated compounds, especially aglycones such as alcohols, terpenes and C13 -norisoprenoids, with a higher effect when the treatment was applied during ripening. CONCLUSION: Extrapolation of the results to grapevines suggests that vine-shoot extract treatment could modulate the synthesis of grape glycosylated aroma precursors. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Piriformospora indica promotes early flowering in Arabidopsis through regulation of the photoperiod and gibberellin pathways.

Flowering in plants is synchronized by both environmental cues and internal regulatory factors. Previous studies have shown that the endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica promotes the growth and early flowering in Coleus forskohlii (a medicinal plant) and Arabidopsis. To further dissect the impact of P. indica on pathways responsible for flowering time in Arabidopsis, we co-cultivated Arabidopsis with P. indica and used RT-qPCR to analyze the main gene regulation networks involved in flowering. Our results revealed that the symbiotic interaction of Arabidopsis with P. indica promotes early flower development and the number of siliques. In addition, expression of the core flowering regulatory gene FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), of genes controlling the photoperiod [CRYPTOCHROMES (CRY1, CRY2) and PHYTOCHROME B (PHYB)] and those related to gibberellin (GA) functions (RGA1, AGL24, GA3, and MYB5) were induced by the fungus, while key genes controlling the age and autonomous pathways remained unchanged. Moreover, early flowering promotion conferred by P. indica was promoted by exogenous GA and inhabited by GA inhibitor, and this effect could be observed under long day and neutral day photoperiod. Therefore, our data suggested that P. indica promotes early flowering in Arabidopsis likely through photoperiod and GA rather than age or the autonomous pathway.