Dairying, diseases and the evolution of lactase persistence in Europe.

In European and many African, Middle Eastern and southern Asian populations, lactase persistence (LP) is the most strongly selected monogenic trait to have evolved over the past 10,000 years1. Although the selection of LP and the consumption of prehistoric milk must be linked, considerable uncertainty remains concerning their spatiotemporal configuration and specific interactions2,3. Here we provide detailed distributions of milk exploitation across Europe over the past 9,000 years using around 7,000 pottery fat residues from more than 550 archaeological sites. European milk use was widespread from the Neolithic period onwards but varied spatially and temporally in intensity. Notably, LP selection varying with levels of prehistoric milk exploitation is no better at explaining LP allele frequency trajectories than uniform selection since the Neolithic period. In the UK Biobank4,5 cohort of 500,000 contemporary Europeans, LP genotype was only weakly associated with milk consumption and did not show consistent associations with improved fitness or health indicators. This suggests that other reasons for the beneficial effects of LP should be considered for its rapid frequency increase. We propose that lactase non-persistent individuals consumed milk when it became available but, under conditions of famine and/or increased pathogen exposure, this was disadvantageous, driving LP selection in prehistoric Europe. Comparison of model likelihoods indicates that population fluctuations, settlement density and wild animal exploitation-proxies for these drivers-provide better explanations of LP selection than the extent of milk exploitation. These findings offer new perspectives on prehistoric milk exploitation and LP evolution.

Multidirectional insights into the phytochemical, biological, and multivariate analysis of the famine food plant (Calligonum polygonoides L).: A novel source of bioactive phytocompounds.

Calligonum polygonoides L. also known as famine food plant, is normally consumed in times of food scarcity in India and Pakistan and also used traditionally in the management of common diseases. The present design aims to provide an insight into the medicinal potential of four solvent extracts of C. polygonoides via an assessment of its phytochemical profile, antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory potential. Phytochemical composition was estimated by deducing total bioactive constituents, UHPLC-MS secondary metabolites profile, and HPLC phenolic quantification. Antioxidant potential was determined via six methods (radical scavenging (DPPH and ABTS), reducing power (FRAP and CUPRAC), phosphomolybdenum total antioxidant capacity and metal chelation activity). Enzyme inhibitory potential was assessed against clinical enzymes (acetylcholinesterase -AChE, butyrylcholinesterase -BChE, tyrosinase, and α-amylase). The highest amounts of phenolic contents were found in chloroform extract (76.59 mg GAE/g extract) which may be attributed to its higher radical scavenging, reducing power and tyrosinase inhibition potential. The n-butanol extract containing the maximum amount of flavonoids (55.84 mg RE/g extract) exhibited highest metal chelating capacity. Similarly, the n-hexane extract was found to be most active against AChE (4.65 mg GALAE/g extract), BChE (6.59 mg GALAE/g extract), and α-amylase (0.70 mmol ACAE/g extract) enzymes. Secondary metabolite assessment of the crude methanol extract as determined by UHPLC-MS analysis revealed the presence of 24 (negative ionization mode) and 15 (positive ionization mode) secondary metabolites, with most of them belonging to phenolic, flavonoids, terpene, and alkaloid groups. Moreover, gallic acid and naringenin were the main phenolics quantified by HPLC-PDA analysis in all the tested extracts (except n-butanol extract). PCA statistical analysis was also conducted to establish any possible relationship amongst bioactive contents and biological activities. Overall, the C. polygonoides extracts could be further considered to isolate bioactive enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant natural phytocompounds.

Extreme climate after massive eruption of Alaska's Okmok volcano in 43 BCE and effects on the late Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom.

The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE triggered a power struggle that ultimately ended the Roman Republic and, eventually, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, leading to the rise of the Roman Empire. Climate proxies and written documents indicate that this struggle occurred during a period of unusually inclement weather, famine, and disease in the Mediterranean region; historians have previously speculated that a large volcanic eruption of unknown origin was the most likely cause. Here we show using well-dated volcanic fallout records in six Arctic ice cores that one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the past 2,500 y occurred in early 43 BCE, with distinct geochemistry of tephra deposited during the event identifying the Okmok volcano in Alaska as the source. Climate proxy records show that 43 and 42 BCE were among the coldest years of recent millennia in the Northern Hemisphere at the start of one of the coldest decades. Earth system modeling suggests that radiative forcing from this massive, high-latitude eruption led to pronounced changes in hydroclimate, including seasonal temperatures in specific Mediterranean regions as much as 7 °C below normal during the 2 y period following the eruption and unusually wet conditions. While it is difficult to establish direct causal linkages to thinly documented historical events, the wet and very cold conditions from this massive eruption on the opposite side of Earth probably resulted in crop failures, famine, and disease, exacerbating social unrest and contributing to political realignments throughout the Mediterranean region at this critical juncture of Western civilization.

HOW INFECTION SHAPED HISTORY: LESSONS FROM THE IRISH FAMINE.

Human history has been profoundly affected by infection throughout the millennia. In most cases, the impact has been a direct consequence of infection in humans. However, in the 1840s, a plant infection - potato blight, caused by the fungus Phytopthera infestans - showed us how an environmental catastrophe in a vulnerable community can profoundly affect human history. Before the visitation of potato blight, the population of Ireland was the most rapidly growing in Europe in the early 1840s. Yet between 1845 and 1850, Ireland's population fell by over one-third - with 3 million people disappearing from the island - half through death and half through emigration. This directly led to a subsequent diaspora of almost 80 million people, many destined for residence in the Americas. The diaspora carried enormous consequences for the social, economic, and political development of the US. Today, lessons from the Irish famine remain poignant and relevant. Social science maps the dimensions of a disaster dependent on the size of its impact and the relative vulnerability of the society which experiences the disaster. Ireland's vulnerability was in terms of its overall poverty and its dependence on the potato as a subsistence crop. However, a critical factor in the disaster was the political structure in which it occurred - where governance was unwilling and unable to respond to the needs of the population.

Adult body height as a mediator between early-life conditions and socio-economic status: the case of the Dutch Potato Famine, 1846-1847.

Adult body height appears to be a relatively accurate summary variable of early-life exposures' influence on health, and may be a useful indicator of health in populations where more traditional health-related indicators are lacking. In particular, previous studies have shown a strong, positive relationship between environmental conditions in early life (particularly nutritional availability and the disease environment) and adult height. Research has also demonstrated positive associations between height and socioeconomic status. We therefore hypothesize that height mediates the relationship between early-life conditions and later-life socio-economic outcomes. We also hypothesize that the period of exposure in early life matters, and that conditions during pregnancy or the first years of life and/or the years during puberty have the largest effects on height and socio-economic status. To test these relationships, we use a sample of 1817 Dutch military conscripts who were exposed during early life to the Dutch Potato Famine (1846-1847). We conduct mediation analyses using structural equation modelling, and test seven different time periods in early-life. We use potato prices and real wages to proxy early-life environmental conditions, and occupational status (using the HISCAM scale) to proxy socioeconomic status. We find no evidence of mediation, partial or full, in any models. However, there are significant relationships between potato prices in adolescence, height and socio-economic status. To determine causality in these relationships, further research is needed.