Breastfed and Formula-Fed Infants: Need of a Different Complementary Feeding Model?

Suboptimal nutrient quality/quantity during complementary feeding (CF) can impact negatively on infants' healthy growth, even with adequate energy intake. CF must supplement at best human milk (HM) or formulas, which show nutritional differences. Considering this, a differentiated CF is probably advisable to correctly satisfy the different nutritional needs. To assess whether current needs at 6-24 months of age can still be met by one single CF scheme or different schemes are needed for breastfed vs. formula/cow's milk (CM) fed infants, protein, iron and calcium intakes were assessed from daily menus using the same type and amount of solid food, leaving same amounts of HM and follow-up formula at 9 and again 18 months of age, when unmodified CM was added. Depending on the child's age, calcium- and iron-fortified cereals or common retail foods were used. The single feeding scheme keeps protein intake low but higher than recommended, in HM-fed children while in formula/CM-fed ones, it achieves much higher protein intakes. Iron Population Recommended Intake (PRI) and calcium Adequate Intakes (AI) are met at the two ages only when a formula is used; otherwise, calcium-fortified cereals are needed. ESPGHAN statements on the futility of proposing different CF schemes according to the milk type fed do not allow to fully meet the nutritional recommendations issued by major Agencies/Organizations/Societies for all children of these age groups.

Maternal Vitamin C and Iron Intake during Pregnancy and the Risk of Islet Autoimmunity and Type 1 Diabetes in Children: A Birth Cohort Study.

Our aim was to study the associations between maternal vitamin C and iron intake during pregnancy and the offspring's risk of developing islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes. The study was a part of the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) prospective birth cohort including children genetically at risk of type 1 diabetes born between 1997-2004. The diets of 4879 mothers in late pregnancy were assessed with a validated food frequency questionnaire. The outcomes were islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes. Cox proportional hazards regression analysis adjusted for energy, family history of diabetes, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genotype and sex was used for statistical analyses. Total intake of vitamin C or iron from food and supplements was not associated with the risk of islet autoimmunity (vitamin C: HR 0.91: 95% CI (0.80, 1.03), iron: 0.98 (0.87, 1.10)) or type 1 diabetes (vitamin C: 1.01 (0.87, 1.17), iron: 0.92 (0.78, 1.08)), neither was the use of vitamin C or iron supplements associated with the outcomes. In conclusion, no association was found between maternal vitamin C or iron intake during pregnancy and the risk of islet autoimmunity or type 1 diabetes in the offspring.

Energy, Sugars, Iron, and Vitamin B12 Content of Commercial Infant Food Pouches and Other Commercial Infant Foods on the New Zealand Market.

There has been an important shift in the New Zealand infant food market over the past decade, with the majority of complementary foods now sold in "pouches". Along with the increasing market share of commercial infant food pouches internationally, there have been growing concerns about their nutritional quality. However, research examining the nutritional quality of these pouches compared to other forms of commercial infant foods in New Zealand has not been undertaken. Nor have any studies reported the free sugars or added sugars content of these foods. To address this knowledge gap, a cross-sectional survey of infant foods sold in New Zealand supermarkets was conducted in 2019-2020. Recipes and nutrient lines were developed for the 266 foods identified (133 food pouches). The energy, iron, vitamin B12, total sugars, free sugars, and added sugars content of infant food pouches and other forms of commercial infant foods per 100 g were compared, both within food groups and by age group. Infant food pouches contained similar median amounts of energy, iron, and vitamin B12 to other forms of commercial infant foods but contained considerably more total sugars (8.4 g/100 g vs. 2.3 g/100 g). However, median free sugars and added sugars content was very low across all food groups except for "dairy" and "sweet snacks". All "dry cereals" were fortified with iron whereas none of the infant food pouches were. Therefore, consuming food pouches to the exclusion of other commercial infant foods may place infants at risk of iron deficiency if they do not receive sufficient iron from other sources.

Iron Content of Commercially Available Infant and Toddler Foods in the United States, 2015.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the iron content of commercially available infant and toddler foods. METHODS: Nutrition Facts label data were used from a 2015 database of 1037 commercial infant and toddler food and drink products. Products were grouped into food categories on the basis of name, ingredients, target age, and reference amounts customarily consumed (RACC). Mean and median iron content per 100 g and per RACC were calculated. The proportion of products considered good and excellent sources of iron were determined on the basis of percent daily value (% DV) thresholds. RESULTS: Among products marketed for infants (aged 4-12 months), infant cereals had the highest mean (6.19 mg iron per RACC; 41.25 iron mg per 100 g) iron content. Among products marketed for toddlers (aged 12-36 months), vegetable-based mixtures or meals contained the highest mean iron in mg per RACC (mean: 2.97 mg) and dry, grain-based desserts had the highest mean iron in mg per 100 g (mean: 6.45 mg). Juice and drink products had the lowest mean iron contents in both infant and toddler products. CONCLUSIONS: Most commercially available infant cereals are considered to be an excellent source of iron, likely from fortification, but wide variability was observed in iron content by food category. Products that are considered good or excellent sources of iron (≥10% DV) can help consumers identify products with higher iron content, such as infant cereals or toddler vegetable-based mixtures/meals.

Are the nutrient and textural properties of Australian commercial infant and toddler foods consistent with infant feeding advice?

Infant feeding guidelines worldwide recommend first foods to be Fe rich with no added sugars and that nutrient-poor discretionary foods are to be avoided. Feeding guidelines also recommend exposing infants to a variety of foods and flavours with increasingly complex textures. Here, we compare nutritional and textural properties of commercial infant and toddler foods available in Australia with established infant feeding guidelines. Nutrition information and ingredient lists were obtained from food labels, manufacturer and/or retailer websites. In total, 414 foods were identified, comprising mostly mixed main dishes, fruit and vegetable first foods and snacks. Most products were poor sources of Fe, and 80 % of first foods were fruit-based. Half of all products were purées in squeeze pouches, and one-third of all products were discretionary foods. The nutritional content of many products was inconsistent with guidelines, being low in Fe, sweet, smooth in consistency or classified as discretionary. Reformulation of products is warranted to improve Fe content, particularly in mixed main dishes, expand the range of vegetable-only foods and textural variety. Greater regulatory oversight may be needed to better inform parents and caregivers. Frequent consumption of commercial baby foods low in Fe may increase the risk of Fe deficiency. Excessive consumption of purées via squeeze pouches may also have implications for overweight and obesity risk.

Iron intake, oxidative stress-related genes and breast cancer risk.

Iron has been suggested to contribute to breast cancer development through oxidative stress generation. Our study investigated associations between iron intake and breast cancer risk, overall and by menopausal and estrogen receptor/progesterone receptor (ER/PR) status, and modification by oxidative stress-related genetic polymorphisms (MnSOD, GSTM1 and GSTT1). A population-based case-control study (3,030 cases and 3,402 controls) was conducted in Ontario, Canada. Iron intake (total, dietary, supplemental, heme, nonheme) was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated from multivariable logistic regression models. Interactions between iron intake and genotypes were assessed among 1,696 cases and 1,761 controls providing DNA. Overall, no associations were observed between iron intake and breast cancer risk. Among premenopausal women, total, dietary and dietary nonheme iron were positively associated with ER-/PR- breast cancer risk (all ptrend < 0.05). Among postmenopausal women, supplemental iron was associated with reduced breast cancer risk (OR>18 vs. 0 mg/day = 0.68, 95% CI: 0.51-0.91), and dietary heme iron was associated with an increased risk, particularly the ER-/PR- subtype (ORhighest vs. lowest quintile = 1.69, 95% CI: 1.16-2.47; ptrend = 0.02). Furthermore, GSTT1 and combined GSTM1/GSTT1 polymorphisms modified some of the associations. For example, higher dietary iron was most strongly associated with increased breast cancer risk among women with GSTT1 deletion or GSTM1/GSTT1 double deletions (pinteraction < 0.05). Findings suggest that iron intake may have different effects on breast cancer risk according to menopausal and hormone receptor status, as well as genotypes affecting antioxidant capacity.

Fluorometric assay of iron(II) lactate hydrate and ammonium ferric citrate in food and medicine based on poly(sodium-p-styrenesulfonate)-enhanced Ag nanoclusters.

Poly(sodium-p-styrenesulfonate)-enhanced and D-penicillamine stabilized Ag nanoclusters (PSS-DPA-AgNCs) were prepared using one-step ultraviolet irradiation combined with microwave heating method, and the effects of the AgNCs photo-luminescence performance based on different types of polyelectrolytes and energy suppliers were studied detailedly. The as-prepared AgNCs can be used as a viable fluorescent probe for monitoring indirectly iron(II) lactate hydrate (ILH) and ammonium ferric citrate (AFC), respectively. The fluorescence (FL) quenching of PSS-DPA-AgNCs by Fe3+ (it is obtained from oxidized ILH/ionized AFC) mainly derives from a dynamic quenching process. Excellent linear relationships exist between the FL quenching degree of the AgNCs and the concentrations of ILH/AFC in the range of 0.17-6.00/0.067-3.33 µmol·L-1, and corresponding limit of detection (at 3σ/slope) is 12.4/6.04 nmol·L-1. Moreover, the AgNCs probe was extended to the assays of ILH in tablets, solid beverage or ILH additive and AFC in two kinds of edible salts or syrup with satisfactory results compared with the standard 1, 10-phenanthroline method. In addition, the AgNCs probe reveals a good temperature sensing capability.

Determinants and Sources of Iron Intakes of Australian Toddlers: Findings from the SMILE Cohort Study.

The first two years of life is a period of rapid growth and development. During this time a lack of key nutrients, including iron, can have long-lasting effects on motor and cognitive performance. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to determine intake and sources of iron in a cohort of 828 toddlers (mean age; 13.1 mo) participating in the Adelaide-based Study of Mothers' and Infants' Life Events affecting oral health (SMILE), and to identify determinants of iron intake. At approximately 12 months of age, 3 non-consecutive days of dietary intake data were collected using a 24-h recall and 2-days food record. The Multiple Source Method was used to combine data from the 24-h recall and each day of the food record to estimate usual iron intake and descriptive statistics were used to report sources of iron. Linear regression was used to identify associations between iron intake and non-dietary determinants (maternal age, education, country of birth, BMI, socioeconomic position, parity, toddler sex) and primary milk feeding method at 12 months. The mean intake of iron was 7.0 (95% CI 6.7⁻7.2) mg/day and 18.2% of children had usual intakes below the estimated average requirement of 4 mg/day. The main sources of iron included infant and toddler cereals and formulas. Milk feeding method and parity were significantly associated with iron intake. Toddlers with siblings and those who received breast milk as their primary milk feed had significantly lower iron intakes than only children and those who received formula, respectively. The Australian Infant Feeding Guidelines promote the importance of iron-iron-rich complementary foods such as meat and meat alternatives. However, low intakes of this food group suggest that parents do not recognize the importance of these foods or understand the specific foods that toddlers should be eating.

Iron supplementation for lambs experimentally infected by Haemonchus contortus: response to anemia and iron store in the bone marrow / Suplementação com ferro em cordeiros infectados experimentalmente por Haemonchus contortus: resposta a anemia e as reservas de ferro na medula óssea

To evaluate the effect of supplementation of iron dextran on blood variables and iron metabolism in lambs experimentally infected by Haemonchus contortus, four experimental groups were used: uninfected and non-supplemented animals (GI); infected animals supplemented with iron (GII); uninfected animals supplemented with iron (GIII); and infected non-supplemented animals (GIV). Groups II and IV received 10,000 larvae (L3) of Haemonchus contortus, and groups II and III received three doses of iron dextran (20mg/kg) intramuscularly with seven days of interval. Blood and faeces samples were collected on days 10 (D10), 17 (D17), 24 (D24), and 31 (D31), in order to determine red blood cell counts, iron metabolism, and EPG. Infected animals developed anemia from D24 and anemia was more severe on D31. Animals from GII had higher hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration compared to animals of GIV on D31. Iron stores in the bone marrow were higher in GII and GIII compared to GI and GIV. The GIV showed lower seric levels of iron on D24 compared to the other groups. The iron supplementation reduces the severity of the anemia caused by infection with Haemonchus contortus in lambs, improving erythropoietic response after blood loss.(AU)

Para avaliar o efeito da suplementação de ferro dextrano sobre variáveis sanguíneas e metabolismo do ferro em cordeiros experimentalmente infectados por Haemonchus contortus, foram utilizados quatro grupos experimentais: animais não infectados e não suplementados (GI); animais infectados e suplementados com ferro (GII); animais não infectados e suplementados com ferro (GIII); e animais não suplementados infectados (GIV). Os grupos II e IV receberam 10.000 larvas (L3) de Haemonchus contortus, e os grupos II e III receberam três doses de ferro dextrano (20mg/kg) por via intramuscular com sete dias de intervalo. As amostras de sangue e fezes foram coletadas nos dias 10 (D10), 17 (D17), 24 (D24) e 31 (D31), para determinar o eritrograma, o metabolismo do ferro e a quantidade de ovos por gramas de fezes (OPG). Os cordeiros infectados desenvolveram anemia no D24, sendo esta mais severa no dia 31. Os cordeiros do GII apresentaram maior hematócrito e concentração de hemoglobina em comparação com animais dd GIV no D31. Os estoques de ferro na medula óssea foram maiores no GII e GIII em comparação com o GI e GIV. O GIV mostrou menores níveis séricos de ferro no D24 em comparação com os outros grupos. A suplementação de ferro reduz a gravidade da anemia causada por infecção por Haemonchus contortus em cordeiros, melhorando a resposta eritropoietica após a perda de sangue.(AU)

Parâmetros hematológicos e bioquímicos de bezerros neonatos da raça Holandesa tratados com ferro suplementar / Hematological and biochemical parameters of neonatal Holstein calves supplemented with iron

A deficiência de ferro em bezerros neonatos está associada ao desenvolvimento de anemia, que favorece o aparecimento de outras enfermidades como pneumonia e diarreia. Avaliou-se o efeito da suplementação de ferro sobre o eritrograma, teores séricos de ferro, ceruloplasmina e transferrina, bem como o potencial para toxicidade do protocolo utilizado por meio da avaliação dos teores de ureia, creatinina e enzimas hepáticas. Para tal avaliação foram utilizados 40 bezerros neonatos da raça Holandesa, alocados em cinco grupos experimentais com oito animais em cada grupo, que foram submetidos aos seguintes protocolos: administração intramuscular de 5mL de solução fisiológica estéril no 5º dia de idade (grupo controle G1), e administração intramuscular de 5mL de ferro dextrano 10% nos seguintes momentos: no 5º dia de idade (G2); no 5o e no 20º dias de idade (G3); no 5o e no 30º dias de idade (G4) e no 5o, 20o e 45º dias de idade (G5). Foram coletadas amostras de sangue até 8 horas após o nascimento e aos 5, 10, 20, 30, 60 e 90 dias de idade para realização do eritrograma, avaliação dos teores séricos de ferro, ceruloplasmina, transferrina, ureia, creatinina, bilirrubina total e direta, e das atividades das enzimas aspartato aminotransferase (AST), fosfatase alcalina (ALP) e gamaglutamiltransferase (GGT). Os animais que receberam ferro suplementar apresentaram menor oscilação nos parâmetros eritrocitários, embora os animais do grupo controle não tenham desenvolvido anemia. Notou-se também aumento, embora não significativo, nos teores séricos de ferro e das proteínas de fase aguda ceruloplasmina e transferrina, cuja atividade está relacionada ao metabolismo desse mineral. Os teores séricos de ureia, creatinina, bilirrubina total e direta e as atividades das enzimas GGT, AST e ALP não foram influenciados pelos protocolos de administração de ferro suplementar. Os protocolos de tratamento empregados não ocasionaram hepatoxidade ou nefrotoxidade aos animais. Concluiu-se que a suplementação com ferro dextrano por via parenteral em bezerros que recebem outras dietas que não apenas leite não traz benefícios que justifiquem sua indicação, embora sejam necessários mais estudos que avaliem a influência da suplementação com ferro sobre o tempo necessário para a recuperação, custos com o tratamento e impacto sobre a vida produtiva dos animais na idade adulta.(AU)

Iron deficiency in newborn calves is associated with the development of anemia, which favors the development of other infirmities such as pneumonia and diarrhea. The present study evaluated the effect of iron supplementation on erythrogram, serum levels of iron, ceruloplasmin and tranferrin, as well as potential toxicity of the protocol used by means of evaluation of urea, creatinine and hepatic enzyme activities. 40 newborn Holstein calves were allocated into 5 experimental groups comprising 8 calves each, which were subjected to the following treatment protocols: intramuscular administration of 5mL of sterile saline on the 5th day of age (control group G1), intramuscular administration of 5mL of 10% dextran iron in the following moments: on the 5th day of age (G2); on the 5th and in the 20th day of age (G3); on the 5th and 30th day of age (G4); on the 5th, 20th and 45th days of age (G5). Blood samples were taken until 8 hours after birth and with 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, and 90 days of age, and subjected to hemogram, evaluation of serum levels of iron, ceruloplasmin, transferrin, urea, creatinine, total and direct bilirrubin, and serum activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alcaline phosphatase (ALP), and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT). Calves that received iron supplementation at any time presented less variation in the erythrocyte parameters, although calves in the control group did not develop anemia. Serum concentration of iron and acute phase protein ceruloplasmin and transferrin, which activities are related to iron metabolism, also increased, although not significantly. Serum levels of urea, creatinine, bilirubins and activities of AST, ALP, and GGT were not influenced by the administration protocols used in this experiment. The results of the experiment led to the conclusion that the supplementation with parenteral dextran iron in calves that receive diets other than exclusive milk does not bring sufficient advantages to be indicated, although more studies are necessary to evaluate the influence of iron supplementation on the outcome of infections in newborn calves, especially its influence on cost of treatment, time necessary for discharge and impact on its productive life.(AU)

In vitro assessment of iron availability from commercial Young Child Formulae supplemented with prebiotics.

PURPOSE: Iron is essential for development and growth in young children; unfortunately, iron deficiency (ID) is a significant public health problem in this population. Young Child Formulae (YCF), milk-derived products fortified with iron and ascorbic acid (AA, an enhancer of iron absorption) may be good sources of iron to help prevent ID. Furthermore, some YCF are supplemented with prebiotics, non-digestible carbohydrates suggested to enhance iron bioavailability. The aim of our study was to evaluate iron bioavailability of YCF relative to prebiotic and AA concentrations. We hypothesised that YCF with the highest levels of prebiotics and AA would have the most bioavailable iron. METHODS: We used the in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell model to measure iron bioavailability from 4 commercially available YCF with approximately equal amounts of iron, but varying amounts of: AA and the prebiotics fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharides. Caco-2 cell ferritin formation was used as a surrogate marker for iron bioavailability. RESULTS: The YCF with the highest concentration of prebiotics and AA had the highest iron bioavailability; conversely, the YCF with the lowest concentration of prebiotics and AA had the lowest. After the addition of exogenous prebiotics, so that all tested YCF had equivalent amounts, there was no longer a significant difference between YCF iron bioavailability. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that ascorbic acid and prebiotics in YCF improve iron bioavailability. Ensuring that iron is delivered in a bioavailable form would improve the nutritional benefits of YCF in relation to ID/IDA amongst young children; therefore, further exploration of our findings in vivo is warranted.

Content of Minerals and Fatty Acids and Their Correlation with Phytochemical Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Leguminous Seeds.

The aim of the study was to determine the mineral composition and fatty acid profile in the seeds of selected Fabaceae species and cultivars and to assess their correlations with phytochemicals and antioxidant activity. The Andean lupine was characterised by a particularly high level of Mg and K as well as Cu, Zn, and Fe (P < 0.05). There were various correlations (P < 0.05) between the total phenols and tannins and these elements. The highest contribution of α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3, n-3) in total fatty acids was noted in the lentil (13.8 in 100 g-1 fat), common bean (11.9 in 100 g-1 fat), and pea seeds (10.4 in 100 g-1 fat) (P = 0.028). In turn, the white lupine contained the highest content of ALA-0.67 g 100 g-1 seeds; its lowest level was determined in the broad bean-0.03 g 100 g-1 seeds. The seeds exhibited a high proportion of hypocholesterolemic fatty acids (on average 86%). The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl antiradical activity was positively correlated with UFA and PUFA (P < 0.05). This indicates great protective potential of legume seeds for prevention and treatment of diet-dependent diseases.

Perception and understanding of health claims on milk powder for children: A focus group study among mothers in Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand.

Health claim regulations and guidelines on food products have been established in some Southeast Asia (SEA) countries. Health claims on food products aim to help consumers make informed food choices to achieve a healthy diet. This study aimed to investigate the perception and understanding of health claims and the associated regulatory frameworks of SEA mothers using semi-structured focus groups conducted in Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand. Milk powder for children for three years and above was used as product focus. The mothers recognised and recalled some specific nutrients and food constituents by name but lacked full understanding of their function. The findings indicated that the mothers in all three countries trusted health claims made on the products which was, in part, explained by their trust in their governments and the international brand manufacturers. Their understanding of health claims was influenced by several factors such as their familiarity of the nutrient, previous knowledge of the nutrients, the perceived relevance of the nutrient, the use of scientific terms, the choice of words, and also the phrasing and length of the claims. Consumer education efforts via Public, Private Partnerships could be an approach to educate SEA consumers and help them to better understand health claims. The findings of this study may be relevant to different stakeholders such as local regulatory bodies, policy makers, food industry, academia and non-profit organisations that aim to effectively communicate health claims.

Common Bean Leaves as a Source of Dietary Iron: Functional Test in an Iron-Deficient Rat Model.

Recent findings made by our group indicate that the iron content in Phaseolus vulgaris leaves is at least four times greater than in grains therefore, we evaluated the effect of supplementation with bean leaf (iron content of 275 mg/kg on a dry basis) in iron-deficient rats. Anemia was induced by feeding rats with an iron-deficient diet (IDD) for 11 days and iron-recovery diets were subsequently tested for 14 days using a normal diet, a 10 % bean leaf-supplemented IDD (BLSD) or a ferrous sulfate-supplemented IDD. Decreased levels of leukocytes (64 %), erythrocytes (30 %), lymphocytes (62 %), granulocytes (72 %), hematocrit (34 %), hemoglobin (35 %), and ferritin (34 %) were observed in the iron-deficient rats compared to the control rats. BLSD supplementation showed the highest recovery values relative to those recorded for control rats: leukocytes (40 %), erythrocytes (24 %), lymphocytes (33 %), granulocytes (88 %), hematocrit (17 %), and hemoglobin (18 %), suggesting that common bean leaves could be a good source of bioavailable iron with possible immunomodulatory effects.

Mineral essential elements for nutrition in different chocolate products.

In this work, the essential mineral nutritional elements in cocoa beans, in chocolates at different cocoa percentage (60,70,80 and 90%) and in milk chocolate are evaluated. Dark chocolates are confirmed as an excellent source of magnesium (252.2 mg/100 g) and iron (10.9 mg/100 g): in chocolate containing 90% cocoa, their content corresponds to, respectively, 67.0% and 80.3 of Nutrient Reference Values (NRV) in the European Union. The chocolate containing 90% cocoa is also a good source of zinc (3.5 mg/100 g), which is important for the immune system, and selenium (0.1 mg/100 g). Three main components suitable to explain the mineral concentrations are analyzed by factor analysis. The component 1 can be interpreted as the contribution from the cocoa beans, owing to the mineral characteristics of the soil in which they have grown; the component 2 is mainly due to the manipulation and transformation of the cocoa in chocolate, while the component 3 represents the milk powder.

Energy and nutrient intakes of young children in the UK: findings from the Gemini twin cohort.

Data on the diets of young children in the UK are limited, despite growing evidence of the importance of early diet for long-term health. We used the largest contemporary dietary data set to describe the intake of 21-month-old children in the UK. Parents of 2336 children aged 21 months from the UK Gemini twin cohort completed 3-d diet diaries in 2008/2009. Family background information was obtained from questionnaires completed 8 months after birth. Mean total daily intakes of energy, macronutrients (g and %E) and micronutrients from food and beverages, including and excluding supplements, were derived. Comparisons with UK dietary reference values (DRV) were made using t tests and general linear regression models, respectively. Daily energy intake (kJ), protein (g) and most micronutrients exceeded DRV, except for vitamin D and Fe, where 96 or 84 % and 70 or 6 % of children did not achieve the reference nutrient intake or lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI), respectively, even with supplementation. These findings reflect similar observations in the smaller sample of children aged 18-36 months in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey. At a population level, young children in the UK are exceeding recommended daily intakes of energy and protein, potentially increasing their risk of obesity. The majority of children are not meeting the LRNI for vitamin D, largely reflecting inadequate use of the supplements recommended at this age. Parents may need more guidance on how to achieve healthy energy and nutrient intakes for young children.

Replacing electrolytic iron in a fortification-mix with NaFeEDTA increases both iron and zinc availabilities in traditional African maize porridges.

While replacing electrolytic iron with NaFeEDTA in multi-micronutrient fortification-mixes is a popular option, there is no information about the effect on the iron and zinc availabilities in African staple foods. This study evaluated the effects of adding a multi-micronutrient fortification-mix, with no iron, electrolytic iron or NaFeEDTA on the availabilities of iron and zinc from thick and fermented special-grade maize porridges using a Caco-2 cell model. Replacing electrolytic iron with NaFeEDTA significantly (p ⩽ 0.05) increased iron and, importantly zinc, availabilities in both the thick (2.16% vs. 1.45% and 2.51% vs. 2.29%, respectively) and fermented (3.35% vs. 2.66% and 3.04% vs. 2.61%, respectively) porridges. Some of the NaFeEDTA complexes perhaps partially dissociated because of pH changes during simulated digestion, binding with zinc and increasing its availability. NaFeEDTA in a multi-micronutrient fortification-mix, added to less refined, high phytate maize meal, would be more effective than electrolytic iron in addressing both iron and zinc deficiencies in low socio-economic populations of sub-Saharan Africa.

Beyond Effectiveness--The Adversities of Implementing a Fortification Program. A Case Study on the Quality of Iron Fortification of Fish and Soy Sauce in Cambodia.

Fortification of fish and soy sauces is a cost-effective strategy to deliver and increase iron intake in the Cambodian diet, as both are widely consumed by the entire population. In order to qualify as fortified sauces recognized by international regulations, iron content must be between 230 and 460 mg/L, whilst nitrogen and salt should contain no less than 10 g/L and 200 g/L respectively. This survey aims to analyze the progress of the fortification program. Through a better understanding of its obstacles and successes, the paper will then consider approaches to strengthen the program. Two hundred and fifty two samples were collected from 186 plants and 66 markets in various provinces. They were then analyzed for iron, nitrogen and salt content. The study demonstrates that 74% of fortified fish and soy sauces comply with Cambodian regulations on iron content. 87% and 53.6% of the collected samples do not have adequate level of nitrogen and salt content, respectively. The paper will discuss additional efforts that need to be implemented to ensure the sustainability of the project, including the need to: (i) comply with International Codex; (ii) adopt mandatory legislation; and (iii) ensure enforcement.

Higher PUFA and n-3 PUFA, conjugated linoleic acid, α-tocopherol and iron, but lower iodine and selenium concentrations in organic milk: a systematic literature review and meta- and redundancy analyses.

Demand for organic milk is partially driven by consumer perceptions that it is more nutritious. However, there is still considerable uncertainty over whether the use of organic production standards affects milk quality. Here we report results of meta-analyses based on 170 published studies comparing the nutrient content of organic and conventional bovine milk. There were no significant differences in total SFA and MUFA concentrations between organic and conventional milk. However, concentrations of total PUFA and n-3 PUFA were significantly higher in organic milk, by an estimated 7 (95 % CI -1, 15) % and 56 (95 % CI 38, 74) %, respectively. Concentrations of α-linolenic acid (ALA), very long-chain n-3 fatty acids (EPA+DPA+DHA) and conjugated linoleic acid were also significantly higher in organic milk, by an 69 (95 % CI 53, 84) %, 57 (95 % CI 27, 87) % and 41 (95 % CI 14, 68) %, respectively. As there were no significant differences in total n-6 PUFA and linoleic acid (LA) concentrations, the n-6:n-3 and LA:ALA ratios were lower in organic milk, by an estimated 71 (95 % CI -122, -20) % and 93 (95 % CI -116, -70) %. It is concluded that organic bovine milk has a more desirable fatty acid composition than conventional milk. Meta-analyses also showed that organic milk has significantly higher α-tocopherol and Fe, but lower I and Se concentrations. Redundancy analysis of data from a large cross-European milk quality survey indicates that the higher grazing/conserved forage intakes in organic systems were the main reason for milk composition differences.

In vivo assessment of iron bioavailability from fortified pearl millet based weaning food.

BACKGROUND: Iron is an essential micronutrient required for normal growth and development of the body. Infants are more vulnerable to develop iron-deficiency anaemia due to inadequate iron supply in early stages. The objective of the study was in vivo assessment of iron bioavailability from pearl millet based weaning food fortified with iron and vitamin A, and to investigate the role of vitamin A in iron absorption in animal models. RESULTS: Results revealed that anaemic group showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher bioavailability than that of normal rat models. Animals fed vitamin A supplemented pearl-millet diet exhibited comparable results with a sub-group provided commercially available weaning diet in both normal and anaemic groups, but significantly (P < 0.05) higher values for studied biological indices than that of a sub-group provided iron fortified pearl-millet or synthetic diet. When the anaemic rats were provided iron + vitamin A fortified diet, iron bioavailability increased and liver iron stores returned to the normal levels after 30 days, indicating a promoter role of vitamin A in intestinal iron absorption. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, bioavailability of electrolytic iron could be improved by supplementation of vitamin A, and this mixture can be considered as a useful fortificant for pearl millet based complementary foods fortification designed to prevent iron deficiency. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.