[Biography of Moody Meng].

Moody Meng(1897-1983) was a pioneer of pharmacy in China. He was the main editor of the first Chinese Pharmacopoeia, the first president of the National College of Pharmacy (now China Pharmaceutical University), the first director of Chongqing Union Pharmaceutical Factory during the Anti-Japanese War and the first director of the China National Institute for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products. He made important contributions in many fields of pharmacy in China.

Nomen Est Omen: Medical and Pharmaceutical Occupations in Slovenian Family Names

The heritage of Slovenian house names and surnames reflects, among others, the former medicine and pharmaceutical occupations, midwifery, and folk medicine practices, and besides that, also health status and illnesses of people. Surnames, which are especially strongly intertwined with family, local and social history, are closely related to folk medicine and magic. Unlike house names (vulgo), which are the usual nicknames for physical and mental characteristics and abilities, surnames denote medical occupations and medicinal folk practice as such. According to the most recent data (as of January 1, 2020) of The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, at least 40 surnames reminiscent former medical or pharmaceutical professions. These newly discovered digital data in open access are precious for the history of medicine because they allow comparing surnames geographically, by frequency, and through the time.

Terapia antibacteriana: origen y evolución en el tiempo / Antibacterial therapy: origin and evolution in the time

Desde siempre, el ser humano buscó una explicación a los fenómenos y una solución a sus males. El instinto fue quien primero guió al hombre para buscar remedios con los que aliviar sus males lamiendo o limpiando sus heridas. Mediante el método de "ensayo-error", el hombre prehistórico fue encontrando plantas y sustancias minerales que resultaban eficaces. En la Edad Media y el Mundo Moderno, la medicina Hippocrático-galénica tuvo, en relación a la terapéutica, a Dioscórides como el gran referente Con el decurso de los años, científicos como Pasteur, Koch, Cantani, Emmerich, Low, Tiberio, sentaron las bases para que más tarde otros como Freudenreich, Domagk, Fleming, Waksman, entre otros, descubrieran y perfeccionaran la amplia gama de antibióticos que hoy conocemos. A pesar de estos avances, en la actualidad se observan múltiples mecanismos de resistencia bacteriana que ponen en peligro la eficacia antibiótica (AU).

The human beings have always looked for an explanation to the phenomena and a solution to his misfortunes. Firstly the instinct was what guided the man to look for remedies to alleviate his ills licking or cleaning his wounds. By means of the "trial-error" method, the prehistoric man was finding plants and mineral substances that were effective. In the Middle Ages and the Modern World, the Hippocratic-galenic medicine took Dioscorides as the great referent in relation to therapeutic. As the years went by, scientist like Pasteur, Koch, Cantani, Emmerich, Low, Tiberio, set the bases for Freudenreich, Domagk, Fleming, Waksman among others to discover and improve the wide range antibiotics known today. In spite of these advances, multiple mechanisms of bacterial resistance putting in danger antibiotic effectiveness are observed today (AU).

De remedios y pócimas: las medicinas en el Quito del siglo 18 / Of remedies and potions: the medicines in the 18th century Quito

Contexto: para conocer la historia de un pueblo, es necesario analizar su espíritu y costumbre, por medio de los cuales se puede comprender su pensamiento que lo identifica y valora dándole su propia razón de ser. Una de las más importantes actividades tiene relación con la forma de preservar su salud, fundamento vital de vida y existencia; en tal virtud este análisis permite conocer la tradición quiteña relacionada con el uso de plantas medicinales y sus diferentes aplicaciones. Objetivo: por medio de esta investigación histórica, detallar el uso de pócimas y plantas medicinales empleados por los llamados médicos y curanderos del Quito del siglo XVIII, con el fin de contrarrestar las enfermedades más comunes que afectaban a los quiteños. Discusión y análisis: son pocos los estudios históricos y antropológicos sobre la materia, lo cual no permite realizar un análisis comparativo con el fin de lograr mejores conclusiones. Posiblemente la dificultad para acceder a fuentes primarias localizadas en archivos especializados sea la causa para esta falencia. Por otro lado, la historia social relacionada con la Medicina es muy relativa, debido a que los historiadores han dado poca importancia a tan valioso tema, con lo cual bien se podría entender de mejor manera el pensamiento del siglo XVIII. Una de las razones, probablemente, tiene relación con el hecho de que para la época, quienes se dedicaban a curar, eran menospreciados, razón por la que el oficio de médico era practicado por mestizos y gente de clase media baja, lo que no permitió dejar mayores evidencias escritas con el fin de comprender como se trataban y curaban las enfermedades, siendo la medicina popular, que subsiste hasta nuestros días, la única evidencia para comprender ligeramente los procedimientos médicos practicados en el lejano siglo colonial de nuestro análisis. Conclusión: la historia de la Medicina en el Ecuador ha sido tratada en contadas ocasiones por médicos profesionales, quienes se han dedicado con admirable paciencia a recoger todo cuanto detalle les ha sido posible localizar sobre todo en los archivos del antiguo hospital San Juan de Dios de la capital ecuatoriana; en igual forma, han podido ubicar ciertos datos que la historia social y política del país no la han tomado en cuenta. Para ello han recurrido al valioso archivo histórico de la Universidad Central del Ecuador, el cual guarda y conserva verdaderas joyas documentales sobre la Facultad de Ciencias Médicas; sin embargo, no existen estudios especializados sobre la farmacopea popular, base fundamental para comprender el estado de salud de los quiteños que habitaron en el siglo 18. Descriptores DeCs: historia del Ecuador, historia de la medicina, farmacopea, remedios caseros, siglo 18, Quito (AU)

Context: to know the history of the people, it is necessary to analyze their spirit and customs, by means of which they can understand their thought that identifies and values them by giving them their own reason for being. One of the most important activities is related to the way of preserving their health, vital foundation of life and existence. In this virtue, this analysis allows knowing the tradition of Quito related to the use of medicinal plants and their different applications. Objective: through this historical investigation, to detail the use of potions and medicinal plants used by the so-called doctors and healers of the eighteenth century Quito, in order to counteract the most common diseases affecting the people of Quito. Discussion and analysis: there are few historical and anthropological studies on the subject, which does not allow a comparative analysis in order to achieve better conclusions. Possibly the difficulty to access primary sources located in specialized files is the cause for this failure. On the other hand, social history related to Medicine is very relative, because historians have given little importance to such a valuable subject, which could well be understood in the eighteenth century thought. One of the reasons, probably, is related to the fact that for the time, those who were dedicated to cure, were despised, reason why the doctor's office was practiced by mestizos and people of lower middle class, which did not allow leave more written evidence in order to understand how diseases were treated and cured, being popular medicine, which subsists to our days, the only evidence to understand slightly the medical procedures practiced in the distant colonial century of our analysis. Conclusion: the history of Medicine in Ecuador has been treated on rare occasions by professional doctors, who have devoted themselves with admirable patience to collect all the details they have been able to locate; especially in the archives of the old San Juan de Dios hospital at the Ecuadorian capital. In the same way, they have been able to locate certain data that the social and political history of the country has not taken into account. For this they have resorted to the valuable historical archive of the Central University of Ecuador, which keeps and preserves true documentary gems about the Faculty of Medical Sciences. However, there are no specialized studies on the popular pharmacopoeia, a fundamental basis for understanding the state of health of the people of Quito who lived in the 18th century. (AU)

Contribution of Arabic Medicine and Pharmacy to the Development of Health Care Protection in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the First Part.

The time interval from the 9th to the 13th century remained known as the "Golden period of the Arab science", and a significant place among the taught sciences are occupied by Medicine and Pharmacy. In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine, also known as Arabic medicine, refers to the science of medicine developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and written in Arabic Arabs were able to use their cultural and natural resources and trade links to contribute to the strong development of pharmacy. After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances, thanks to the Turks, Arab culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant role in the transfer of Arabic medical and pharmaceutical knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arab component in a specific way was intertwined with other cultures and traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

[Claude Bernard - then and now]. / Claude Bernard ­ hier et aujourd'hui.

The early life of Claude Bernard - dreamer and frustrated playwright - reveals no indication of his future scientific aptitude. Cartesian doubt, a principle that he would adhere to lifelong, clouded a failed pharmacy apprenticeship that led to medical studies in Paris - but without great success. Research was his only aim, it was made possible only by a lucrative but unsuccessful arranged marriage. His passion for work and over-riding principles of truth and proof would ultimately allow him to stand out from his peers with recognition by multiple French professional societies - and the wider scientific world. In today's world, the two centuries-long practice of homeopathy illustrates his abhorrence of ''practice without proof'': a dominance by economic factors that is apparent in cancer chemotherapy, where new drug approval is often based on statistics rather than genuine clinical benefit. Bernard was indeed sceptical about the (ab)use of statistics - a caution even more necessary today. His experimental method stands out as a signal principle in research. This was cleverly taken out of context by Emile Zola, who used it to support his ideas on the literary naturalism that appeared in his Rougon-Macquart cycle of books - and that led him to dedicate his book, Le Roman Expérimental, to Claude Bernard himself.

Pharmacy, Testing, and the Language of Truth in Renaissance Italy.

This article examines the role of testing and innovation in sixteenthcentury Italian pharmacy. I argue that apothecaries were less concerned with testing drugs for efficacy or creating novel products than with reactivating an older Mediterranean pharmacological tradition and studying the materials on which it relied. Their practice was not driven by radical experimentation but by a "culture of tweaking"-of minute operational changes to existing recipes and accommodation of their textual variants-which was rooted in the guild economy fostering incremental over radical innovation and in a humanist reevaluation of past autorities. Workshop practice was also increasingly driven by a new ideal of staying true to nature fostered by the period's botanical renaissance. This led to an emphasis on ingredients over processes in the shop, and found clearest expression in the elaboration of a taxonomic "language of truth" that helped apothecaries discern between authentic and inauthentic materia medica and harness their sincerity in lieu of testing effectiveness.

Contribution of Arabic Medicine and Pharmacy to the Development of Health Care Protection in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the Second Part.

After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances. Thanks to the Turks, Arabic culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H). Significant role in the transfer of Arabic pharmaceutical knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arabic component in a specific way was intertwined with other cultures and traditions of B&H. The Franciscan monasteries in Bosnia and Herzegovina have museums which contain important exhibits and libraries rich in books, among which many from the field of medicine and pharmacy. Muslim mosques, also, had small libraries with Arabic books used for spreading medical knowledge. The second category was folk doctors and practitioners who were on disposition to the people of any religion. Some of them listened to lectures in medicine during the studies of theology and philosophy. However, most did not have any medical education, but by reading books and teaching experience they made their own recipe collection. Special books, called "Ljekaruse" (Books of recipes) were also born during the study when they came into contact with an even larger number of health books. However, it should not be neglected that a lot of them contained folk medicines that were used in some environments depending on the habits and available herbs. Although it has been proven that many recipes from Ljekaruse are pharmacologically and medically justified, one should not ignore the knowledge and skill behind them. The true flowering of medicine in B&H happening thanks to graduate doctors in Italy, Austria, Hungary, Turkey, etc. Through their action, in a short time, they greatly improved health in B&H, educated the population. The Franciscans were important because they opened the first open-air clinics, the first pharmacies, and wrote the first pharmacopoeia and regulations for the work of health care institutions. Numerous works preserved in monasteries have mostly brought about the study in only one or two copies. Their contribution to the development of health care and the prevention of illness and treatment of the population in B&H during that period is very significant.

Turhan Baytop (1920-2002): A pioneer historian of pharmacy from Turkey.

Turhan Baytop, a Turkish professor of pharmacognosy (the scientific study of crude drugs of animal, vegetable, and mineral origin), received international acclaim not only for his contributions in collecting and identifying the Anatolian plants, but also for his extensive research shedding light on the history of Turkish pharmacy. As a devoted researcher, collector, and lecturer, T Baytop was a genuine pioneer of the history of pharmacy as a discipline in Turkey.

[Henri-Aimé Lotar (1836-1898) and the Museum of Faculty of pharmaceutical and biological sciences at the University of Lille].

Dispensing pharmacist (settled down at n° 27 of Roubaix street in Lille, in the ancient pharmacy of his father Henri Lucien Joseph Lotar), Henri-Aimé L otar was also assistant professor since 1865, then first pharmacy titular professor at the University of Lille (from the creation of the chair of pharmacy in 1881 to his death in 1898), hospital chief pharmacist, pharmacy inspector, member of Hygiene Council and representative of pharmacy at the Academic Council. He gave his name to the Museum Lotar, which is situated on the ground floor of the Faculty of pharmaceutical and biological sciences at the University of Lille and where his portrait ­ in official costume of professor ­ takes place within a rebuild pharmacy in «19th century¼ style. This museum besides includes ancient pharmacopoeias, numerous books (among which the monumental Herbarium of Charles Fourcade) and old registers of prescription ­ we made an inventory of those ­ as well as pharmacy pots, specimens of herbal drugs, patent medicines, medical devices, several objects for pharmaceutical use, laboratory instruments and a professor dress which belonged to Professor Morvillez, third successor of Lotar at the chair of Pharmacy.

[Mysteries of a medicine chest ].

This article retraces the history of an old medicine chest, used at the beginning of the 19th century, but probably designed earlier. Possibly made in A ustria, with a two-headed eagle lining the bottom of the lid, this first-aid kit belongs to a small group of related chests. It should be noted that these chests were used for a wide variety of different purposes over time. Also named a «droguier¼ in French, this light chest, made of walnut, and, according to family lore, found in Normandy, would have belonged to a doctor, as confirmed by a short invoice found among numerous documents. The identity of the supplier of numerous old medicines is shown on the labels on the flasks (many of which are intact) and other boxes (containing, in particular, herbal drugs) : «Clément, Apothicaire. Rue St Onge N°. 42. près le Bd. du Temple A Paris¼, whose history is recounted here step by step.

[Pharmacists in transition. Academy and Pharmacy in Mexico from 1833 to 1865]. / Farmacéuticos en transición. Academia y Farmacia en México de 1833 a 1865.

From the second half of the 19th century, health disciplines went through an institutional and professional restructuring, which progressively altered the guild order that had characterized them to that point. In the case of Pharmacy, this process implied the generation of officially recognized spaces, as the chairs of Pharmacy and Medical Substance, founded during the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas (Establishment of Medical Sciences) (1833). In those spaces it was sought to institutionalize knowledge and modern practices related to Pharmacy. In this work we look over the first academic experience of the pharmaceutical community in that new space of instruction, based on the records belonging to the students enrolled in the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas from 1833 to 1865, year of the enrollment of the last generation. The information contained in those 163 records displays the way the pharmaceutical field was transformed, after the aforementioned restructuring. The reader will notice the diverse normativity, which regulated the joining of pharmacists to academic life (of which, until then, they were excluded). He will also realize how, among the first students enrolled in the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas, said normativity was broke in order to adapt it to the known ways of students and professors. Progressively, the guild instruction would be ousted by the institutional instruction (for example, the years of practice in the drugstores were rejected), so that the guild ways of teaching were changing to turn the pharmacist into an individual of institutional instruction.

Desde la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, las disciplinas de la salud atravesaron por una reestructuración institucional y profesional que progresivamente alteró el orden gremial que las agrupaba. Para el caso de la Farmacia, el proceso implicó la generación de espacios oficialmente reconocidos, como las propias cátedras de Farmacia y de Materia Médica, fundadas en el Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas (1833). En esos espacios se buscó institucionalizar los saberes y las prácticas modernas relacionadas con la disciplina. En este trabajo se revisa la primera experiencia académica de la comunidad farmacéutica en su nuevo espacio de instrucción, a partir de los expedientes de los estudiantes inscritos en el Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas de 1833, año de su fundación, a 1865, cuando se inscribió la última generación. La información de los 163 expedientes ilustra las transformaciones ocurridas en el ámbito farmacéutico luego de la reestructuración de su entorno profesional. El lector notará la diversa normatividad que pretendió regular el ingreso de los farmacéuticos a la vida académica de la que hasta entonces estaban excluidos y verá cómo entre los primeros inscritos al Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas dicha normatividad fue transgredida para adaptarse a las formas ya conocidas por estudiantes y profesores. Progresivamente, la instrucción de tipo gremial sería desplazada por la institucional, al desdeñarse los años de práctica en las boticas, de manera que las formas gremiales de enseñanza se fueron transformando para hacer del farmacéutico un personaje de instrucción institucional.

Henri Bocquillon-Limousin (1856-1917).

A pharmacist facinated by materia medica Henri Bocquillon-Limousin (1856-1917) get married with the daughter of Stanislas Limousin in 1885. After being graduated from pharmacy high school of Paris, he joined the laboratory of Jungfleisch. Afterwards, he briefly worked in the municipal laboratory of Paris and then he turned to a pharmacy activity. He took up the pharmacy of his father in law in 1887. His research was mainly directed to materia medica and valorization of colonial medicinal plants. Thanks to a well expanded network of associates, he managed to obtain an important collection of medicinal plants which is actually preserved in "Francois Tillequin museum - Collections of materia medica" in the faculty of pharmacy of Paris. H. Bocquillon-Limousin is also well known for his numerous editions of Formulaire des medicaments nouveaux and his books in the field of material medica.

[In process.] / Missionspharmazie Wissensaustausch - Wissensbildung -Wissenstransfer.

Missionary pharmacy developed as a special type of the European pharmacy from the 16th to the 18th centuries in the overseas missions in the context of the proclamation of the Christian faith, the European expansion and the beginning globalization. As this type of pharmacy was determined by the specific circumstances of the medical-pharmaceutical situation in the mission countries as well as by the knowledge of the missionaries themselves, it can be defined as missionary pharmacy. It followed principally the model of the medieval monastery pharmacy and paved the way for the Medical Mission at the beginning of the 19th century. Different lines of development on various levels of exchange, forming, documenting and transmission of knowledge shaped the concept of the missionary pharmacy. The activities in the context of the missionary pharmacy initiated a global transfer of drugs and the referring pharmaceutical knowledge, which was institutionalized by the pharmacies of the Jesuits and essentially influenced the development of the Materiae medicae and the development of modern pharmacy all around the globe. The trading routes of typical drugs like the Fever bark and compositions can reconstruct this international transfer of knowledge. Still nowadays, knowledge of the missionary pharmacy, especially about genuine plants of the non-European countries, can be interesting for the development of new phytotherapeutics and possibly active substances.

Alexandria, An emporium in the Silk Road, and the Traffic of Unusual Medicines.

In Ancient times, an active trade of exotic and peculiar drugs tool place along the Silk Road. Coming through China, India, Central Asia, Armenia, including Colchis, Arabia, Nubia as far as Greece and Rome, it was centered during Ptolemaic and Roman times in Alexandria, the world Emporium, remarkably advanced in scientific medicine. Physicians required a variety of active ingredients for their pharmacotherapy, following various related branches of medicine. These included: 1) herbal remedies: including toxic plants 2) polypharmacy: missing together all kind of drugs 3) dreckapotheke or copropharmacy, employing unclean materials 4) organic therapy, using exotic or domestic animal products 5) aromatherapy, lined to essential oils and perfumes 6) 'medical astrology and botany', regarding the laws of sympathy in the natural world 7) alchemy and magic medicine: with occult knowledge