Genetic continuity and change among the Indigenous peoples of California.

Before the colonial period, California harboured more language variation than all of Europe, and linguistic and archaeological analyses have led to many hypotheses to explain this diversity1. We report genome-wide data from 79 ancient individuals from California and 40 ancient individuals from Northern Mexico dating to 7,400-200 years before present (BP). Our analyses document long-term genetic continuity between people living on the Northern Channel Islands of California and the adjacent Santa Barbara mainland coast from 7,400 years BP to modern Chumash groups represented by individuals who lived around 200 years BP. The distinctive genetic lineages that characterize present-day and ancient people from Northwest Mexico increased in frequency in Southern and Central California by 5,200 years BP, providing evidence for northward migrations that are candidates for spreading Uto-Aztecan languages before the dispersal of maize agriculture from Mexico2-4. Individuals from Baja California share more alleles with the earliest individual from Central California in the dataset than with later individuals from Central California, potentially reflecting an earlier linguistic substrate, whose impact on local ancestry was diluted by later migrations from inland regions1,5. After 1,600 years BP, ancient individuals from the Channel Islands lived in communities with effective sizes similar to those in pre-agricultural Caribbean and Patagonia, and smaller than those on the California mainland and in sampled regions of Mexico.

Bartolomeo Panizza (1785-1867) and his contribution to the discovery of the visual cortex.

Bartolomeo Panizza (1785-1867) was an eminent anatomist and a pupil of Antonio Scarpa (1752-1832) at the University of Pavia. In 1855, before the revolutionary studies of Paul Broca (1824-1880) on aphasia that supported the theory of cortical localizations, Panizza delivered a lecture in Milan on the anatomy of the visual system, Osservazioni sul Nervo Ottico ("Observations on the optic nerve"). This lecture contains the first description of the cortical projection of the visual pathways in the occipital lobe, anticipating the revolutionary studies performed by Hermann Munk (1839-1912) in the late 19th century. The findings of Panizza questioned the assumption of the French physiologist, Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens (1794-1867) who was defending the holistic concept of cerebral equipotentiality, which was widely accepted among the scientific community in the early 19th century. The present essay highlights the life and the scientific studies of Bartolomeo Panizza, with emphasis on the issue of cerebral localization that was simmering in the scientific community at that time.

Vida, saúde, doença e cura: encontros e desencontros entre Hahnemann e Nietzsche / Life, health , illness and healing: matches and mismatches between hahnemann and nietzsche

Este artigo tem como objeto os pensamentos vitalistas de Hahnemann e Nietzsche analisados a partir dos conceitos de vida, saúde, doença e cura. Buscou-se traçar correspondências e explicitar as diferenças dos pensamentos envolvidos, tendo como objetivo avaliar as hipóteses de os vitalismos desses autores serem semelhantes e se poderia ser possível afirmar que a busca da "grande saúde" equivaleria à meta do tratamento homeopático. Conclui-se pela semelhança dos vitalismos e pela ampliação do ideal de cura homeopático através da busca da "grande saúde", pois contempla a liberdade de espírito ao mesmo tempo em que se compromete com a ampliação da normatividade vital do ser humano.

This article having as object the vitalist studies by Hahnemann and Nietzsche. It aimed analyzing the concepts life, health and disease in the thoughts of these authors, drawing connections and explaining the differences of thoughts involved. The study sought to assess the idea that Hahnemann's vitalism resembles Nietzsche's, and whether it is possible to say that the pursuit of "big health" would the goal of homeopathic treatment to address the "freedom of spirit" in achieving the expansion of the vital normativeness.

[The origins and development of traditional medicine: an ideological issue]. / Orígenes y desarrollo de la medicina tradicional: una cuestión ideológica.

Most analysts identify three main foundations of the development of traditional Mexican medicine between the 15th and 18th centuries (pre-Hispanic, Hispanic, and African), as well as a number of complementary sources incorporated over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries. However, a significant proportion of leading specialists consider pre-Hispanic medicine to be the primary basis of traditional medicine, downplaying Hispanic influence and disregarding African influence. Furthermore, they either ignore or give only cursory treatment to the role of biomedicine in the present-day medicalization of traditional medicine. Although this trend can be traced back to the 1930s and 1940s, it intensified from the 1970s onward and peaked around the time of the Fifth Centennial in 1992, transforming the question of the origins and development of traditional medicine into a largely ideological issue.

La mayoría de los analistas reconocen tres fuentes básicas en el desarrollo de la medicina tradicional mexicana entre los siglos XV y XVIII (prehispánico, hispánico y afro), así como toda una serie de fuentes complementarias que se fueron incluyendo sobre todo entre los siglos XVIII y XXI. No obstante, gran parte de los principales especialistas consideran que el núcleo de la medicina tradicional es la medicina prehispánica, secundarizando lo hispánico y excluyendo lo afro. Incluso no reconocen o señalan superficialmente el papel de la biomedicina en la medicalización actual de la medicina tradicional. Si bien esta tendencia se observa desde las décadas de 1930 y 1940, se profundiza a partir de la década de 1970, para eclosionar en torno al Quinto Centenario de 1992, convirtiendo la cuestión de los orígenes y el desarrollo de la medicina tradicional en una cuestión básicamente ideológica.

Overview of Dioscorides' recipes in Croatian books of folk recipes.

The aim of this paper is to present an overview of Dioscorides' recipes from his work De materia medica which are found in Croatian folk medicine preserved in books of folk recipes called ljekaruse. The particularities of five published and analysed Croatian books of folk recipes from the 17 th and 18 th century are examined. Recipes with drugs of herbal and animal origin, which are most often mentioned in Croatian books of folk recipes, and which were available in folk medicine at the time, are compared with those from Dioscorides' work. Many herbal drugs described in books of folk recipes are today used in contemporary phytotherapy, and modern biomedical research reveals new bioactive substances and confirms new and potential biological activities in medicinal plants used in folk medicine, which is the basis for further study of De materia medica by Dioscorides and ethnomedicinal collections. Croatian books of folk recipes are a valuable resource for multidisciplinary study, including for medicinal and pharmaceutical historians, philologists and ethnologists.

The vanishing link between animalcules and disease before the 19th century.

When Antoni van Leeuwenhoek began his work with microscopes in the late 17th century, western medicine was mostly based on the work of a Roman doctor called Galen (129-199 ad), theological interpretation, superstition, and folk remedies. During modern discussions of Van Leeuwenhoek's work, a common question from listeners is why it took so long for the link between Van Leeuwenhoek's discoveries and infectious disease to be accepted. Published literature, examples of which are discussed here, shows that many researchers, doctors, and others reported the link, even during Van Leeuwenhoek's lifetime. However, it was frequently not taken seriously by the most influential people. The scientific establishment included a faction of the Royal Society of London who called themselves the 'Mechanical Philosophers'. They ridiculed those reporting animalcule-linked infection, dismissing them as 'Contagionists'. The medical establishment also included many influential people with a lot to lose if they changed their established approaches, and many quack doctors. Most religious ministers were strongly orthodox, some even claiming that helping the sick angered God. A major problem, of course, was that technology and biological understanding also lagged far behind. Despite the fact that the use of vaccination was under active discussion in the Royal Society at the time of Van Leeuwenhoek's death and quarantine was in regular use, a possible microbial connection was apparently not considered. It was not until late in the 19th century, that Robert Koch (1843-1910) isolated Bacillus anthracis, proved that it caused anthrax, and was believed. This paper follows a lecture given during the online Microbe Forum in June 2021, and illustrates the difficulties of establishing the true link between Van Leeuwenhoek's animalcules and infectious disease in humans, animals, and plants.

O trânsito de plantas: circulação de saberes e práticas médicas na América Meridional durante a Época Moderna / The transit of plants: circulation of medical knowledge and practices in South America during the Modern Era

Resumo A partir dos registros sobre plantas e ervas de médicos, agentes de cura, missionários, administradores coloniais nos séculos XVII e XVIII, o artigo explora as formas de construção do conhecimento sobre a flora, utilizando o conceito de circulação proposto por Kapil Raj. As experiências distintas e os documentos analisados demonstram o processo de observação, coleta, sistematização e circulação do conhecimento e a influência da história natural e da tradição hipocrática na classificação das ervas e plantas e na descrição adotada nos textos reunidos neste artigo. Desde livros impressos até anotações dispersas em diários de viagens, os usos das espécies para a vida humana foi o elemento valorizado por aqueles que observaram diretamente o potencial de plantas, frutos e ervas americanas.

Abstract From records on plants and herbs made by doctors, healers, missionaries, and colonial administrators in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, this article explores ways of constructing knowledge about flora using the concept of circulation proposed by Kapil Raj. The distinct experiences and documents analyzed demonstrate the process of observing, collecting, systematizing, and circulating knowledge, and the influence of natural history and the Hippocratic tradition on the classification of herbs and plants and on the descriptions adopted in these texts. From printed books to notes scattered through travel diaries, usefulness of these species to humankind was the element valued by those who directly observed the potential of American plants, fruits, and herbs.

Metagenomic analysis reveals mixed Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a 18th century Hungarian midwife.

The Vác Mummy Collection comprises 265 well documented mummified individuals from the late 16th to the early 18th century that were discovered in 1994 inside a crypt in Vác, Hungary. This collection offers a unique opportunity to study the relationship between humans and pathogens in the pre-antibiotic era, as previous studies have shown a high proportion of tuberculosis (TB) infections among the individuals. In this study, we recovered ancient DNA with shotgun sequencing from a rib bone sample of a 18th century midwife. This individual is part of the collection and shows clear skeletal changes that are associated with tuberculosis and syphilis. To provide molecular proof, we applied a metagenomic approach to screen for ancient pathogen DNA. While we were unsuccessful to recover any ancient Treponema pallidum DNA, we retrieved high coverage ancient TB DNA and identified a mixed infection with two distinct TB strains by detailed single-nucleotide polymorphism and phylogenetic analysis. Thereby, we have obtained comprehensive results demonstrating the long-time prevalence of mixed infections with the sublineages L4.1.2.1/Haarlem and L4.10/PGG3 within the local community in preindustrial Hungary and put them in context of sociohistorical factors.

Bygone theatres of events: A history of human anatomy and dissection.

Over the last four millennia, the discipline of anatomy and its relationships with medicine and society have evolved dramatically. Human dissection, the perennial tool for anatomical discovery and education, has both guided this evolution and matured alongside it. Soon after the first cadaveric dissections recorded in ancient Greece, China, India, and Persia, clear endorsements of its practice fell largely silent in the anatomical record for 1,500 years before reappearing in Europe at the dawn of the Renaissance. Between the 13th and 18th centuries CE, the performance of anatomical dissection became a popular form of education and public entertainment, and the demand for human cadavers steadily increased among European anatomical schools while supply remained limited by legal statute. This gave rise to an informal group of amateur and professional body snatchers called the Resurrectionists and, later, inspired the Anatomy Act of 1832 CE. In the 20th and 21st centuries CE, voluntary body bequeathal programs have enabled the practice of human dissection to continue in academic centers as a cornerstone of anatomical education, now with a newfound focus on the development of affective skills. This article provides an abridged account of anatomy's development, highlighting key moments in its growth, the valuable contributions of many different societies to the discipline, and the important roles of several luminary anatomists of antiquity. Within the broader context of this history, it offers an overview of anatomical dissection's evocative past, spanning from its inception to its present-day practice.

The evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy: From antiquity to modern times.

Present day scenario regarding epistemological methods in anatomy is in sharp contrast to the situation during ancient period. This study aimed to explore the evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy across centuries. In ancient times Egyptian embalmers acquired anatomical knowledge from handling human bodies and likewise anatomical studies in India involved human dissection. Ancient Greeks used theological principles-based methods, animal dissection and human dissection in practice of anatomy. Human dissection was also practiced in ancient China for gaining anatomical knowledge. Prohibition of human dissection led to use of animal dissection in ancient Rome and the trend continued in Europe through Middle Ages. Epistemological methods used by Muslim scholars during Middle Ages are not clearly chronicled. Human dissection returned as primary epistemological method in Renaissance Europe and empirical methods were reinstated after ancient period in human dissection during 16th century. The situation further improved with introduction of pragmatic experiment based approach during 17th century and autopsy-based methods during 18th century. Advances in anatomical knowledge continued with advent of microscope-based methods and emergence of anatomical sections in practice of human dissection in 19th century. Introduction of human observational studies, medical imaging, and molecular methods presented more options in terms of epistemological methods for investigating the human body during 20th century. Onset of 21st century has witnessed dominance of technology-based methods in anatomy. Limited emphasis on ethics in epistemological methodologies since antiquity is a dark aspect of otherwise an eventful evolutionary journey but recent developments are in positive direction.

Pulmonary Circulation Discovery Before Ibn Nafis-Ancient Persian and Greek Theories: A Narrative Review.

Importance: The recognition of the pulmonary circulation is a complex evolution in medical history and draws on theories across eras and cultures. Observations: This narrative review summarizes evidence suggesting that the recognition of pulmonary circulation is older than the time of Ibn Nafis. The theory of pulmonary circulation originated in ancient Persia (ad 224-637), was overshadowed by Greek theory from the 11th century, and reestablished by Ibn Nafis in the 13th century. Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this review may help contextualize the story of the discovery of pulmonary circulation in ancient Persian and Greek theories before Ibn Nafis.

O passado está presente: Hahnemann / The past is present: Hahnemann

Uma busca de conceitos velhos, mas não envelhecidos, com a ajuda preciosa de um grande estudioso. E foi então que, a 10 de abril de 1755, em Meissen, um lugarejo da Saxônia que se jactava de ser o melhor produtor de porcelana da época, nasceu Christian Frederico Samuel Hahnemann. Seu pai, apesar de ser o melhor pintor da fábrica, não tinha recursos para custearlhe a escola, mas dado o interesse e a inteligência do pequeno Samuel, o gerente assumiu o custeio de seus estudos, pois reconhecia nele uma capacidade e uma inteligência que não eram comuns. Após cursar os primeiros anos na escola local, aos 16 anos de idade (1771), o jovem Hahnemann foi admitido na famosa Escola de Saint Afra, dedicada apenas à instrução dos filhos de nobres. Como escola altamente aristocrática, recebeu ali excelente orientação no que tangia às línguas clássicas e modernas, dominando com facilidade além do alemão, sua língua mãe, o inglês, francês, árabe, espanhol, sírio, latim, grego, hebreu e o caldeu. Consta que nesta escola já tenha lido o "Corpus Hippocraticum", iniciando assim sua carreira devotada às ciências.

A tarefa histórica da psicologia indígena diante dos 60 anos da regulamentação da psicologia no Brasil / Thehistorical task of indigenous psychology and the 60 years of psychology regulation in Brazil / La labor histórica de la psicología indígena frente a los 60 años de regulación de la psicología en Brasil

A constituição da psicologia como profissão e área acadêmico-científica se nutriu de saberes psicológicos presentes no campo cultural. A ciência e a profissão desdobram tais saberes em atenção a demandas do campo social. Quando esses conhecimentos, práticas e demandas são ingênua ou intencionalmente tomados como gerais e universais, há o risco de se reproduzir violências epistêmicas, eliminando as oportunidades de partilha e contribuição dos diversos pontos de vista culturalmente situados na construção daquilo que, desdobrando tradições greco-romanas, judaicas e cristãs vem sendo nomeado como psicologia. Diante dos 60 anos da regulamentação da Psicologia no Brasil, embora nas últimas décadas tenha havido algum esforço de escuta das demandas indígenas, em Pindorama ainda há um longo percurso para que as contribuições desses povos impliquem profundas retificações semânticas, implicando revisões conceituais e teórico-práticas. Este artigo defende que qualificar a psicologia como indígena visa oportunizar o diálogo de indígenas psicólogas e psicólogos, e quaisquer pessoas interessadas em refletir sobre o enraizamento dos conhecimentos e práticas psicológicas nas tradições que os originaram.(AU)

As a profession and academic-scientific area, Psychology was nourished by psychological knowledge that circulate on the cultural sphere, which the discipline unfolds in practices to meet social demands. When this knowledge, these practices and demands are naively or intentionally taken as universal, we risk reproducing epistemic violence, suppressing opportunities for sharing and contribution by different points of view culturally situated in the construction of what, based on Greco-Roman, Jewish and Christian traditions has been called psychology. Sixty years after the regulation of Psychology in Brazil, despite the efforts made in the last decades to listen to the Indigenous demands, Pindorama has a long way to go before these contributions ensue deep semantic ramifications, leading to conceptual and theoretical-practical revisions. This paper argues that qualifying psychology as Indigenous aims to provide opportunities for dialogue for indigenous psychologists, other psychologists, and anyone interested in reflecting on the diverse roots of psychological practices.(AU)

La constitución de la Psicología en tanto profesión y campo académico-científico estuvo conformada de saberes psicológicos presentes en el campo cultural. La ciencia y la profesión despliegan tales saberes en atención a las demandas del campo social. Cuando estos saberes, prácticas y demandas son considerados ingenua o intencionalmente como generales y universales, existe un riesgo de reproducir violencias epistémicas, eliminando oportunidades para compartir y aportar desde los diferentes puntos de vista culturalmente situados en la construcción de lo que desde tradiciónes griegas, romanas, judías y cristianas se viene nombrando la Psicología. Frente a los 60 años de regulación de la Psicología en Brasil, si bien en las últimas décadas hubo algún esfuerzo por escuchar las demandas indígenas, en Pindorama aún queda un largo camino por recorrer para que los aportes de estos pueblos impliquen profundas correcciones semánticas y revisiones conceptuales, teóricas y prácticas. Este artículo argumenta que calificar la Psicología como indígena pretende brindar espacios de diálogo entre psicólogas y psicólogos indígenas, y los demás interesados en reflexionar sobre el arraigo de las prácticas psicológicas en diferentes tradiciones.(AU)

Ca' Granda, Hortus simplicium: Restoring an Ancient Medicinal Garden of XV-XIX Century in Milan (Italy).

This work is based on the study of 150 majolica vases dated back to the mid XVII century that once preserved medicinal remedies prepared in the ancient Pharmacy annexed to the Ospedale Maggiore Ca' Granda in Milan (Lombardy, Italy). The Hortus simplicium was created in 1641 as a source of plant-based ingredients for those remedies. The main objective of the present work is to lay the knowledge base for the restoration of the ancient Garden for educational and informative purposes. Therefore, the following complementary phases were carried out: (i) the analysis of the inscriptions on the jars, along with the survey on historical medical texts, allowing for the positive identification of the plant ingredients of the remedies and their ancient use as medicines; (ii) the bibliographic research in modern pharmacological literature in order to validate or refute the historical uses; (iii) the realization of the checklist of plants potentially present in cultivation at the ancient Garden, concurrently with the comparison with the results of a previous in situ archaeobotanical study concerning pollen grains. For the species selection, considerations were made also regarding drug amounts in the remedies and pedoclimatic conditions of the study area. Out of the 150 vases, 108 contained plant-based remedies, corresponding to 148 taxa. The remedies mainly treated gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders. At least one of the medicinal uses was validated in scientific literature for 112 out of the 148 examined species. Finally, a checklist of 40 taxa, presumably hosted in the Hortus simplicium, was assembled.

Ancient and modern pathologies and therapies: St. Gallicanus Hospital in Rome between the 18th and 20th centuries.

St. Gallicanus Hospital in Rome, Italy, created by the will of Pope Benedict XIII (1649-1730) in 1725, was the first dermatologic hospital in the world. The strong bond between science and faith, humanitarian spirit and scientific research, and the profoundness and legacy of its entire history have all contributed to its legacy. We have traced its development by examining archival documents to understand the life of the institute and the diseases that were diagnosed and treated from the 18th century to the first half of the 20th century. Some of the main diseases were leprosy, mange, scabies, ringworm, and syphilis, which were widespread in Rome during the 18th and 19th centuries and were creating a mortal threat for much of the population. St. Gallicanus Hospital was dedicated to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these diseases where possible. Special attention has been directed to syphilis and the use of penicillin therapy after its introduction in 1943, especially for curbing the extensive problems created by prostitution.

Doron medicum-the gift of medicine: How a rare 17th century medical translation positively impacted the community and predicted current analgesic techniques.

In 1683, a self-proclaimed apothecary physician and London professor of physick by the name of Guilelmus (William) Salmon authored a pharmacopoeia titled Doron medicum, the 'gift of medicine' (Greek/Latin translation). This text formulates an English supplement to the Latin Materia medica (16th century), discussing internal and external compound medicines of the late 17th century. This pharmacopoeia enabled those incapable of reading Latin to provide medical care to a challenging post-plague community. Opiology, mercury, dragon's blood, willow bark, animal preparations and therapies now considered obscure, provide insight into therapies at the time. Early critical care treatments in haemorrhage control and pain management are described.Doron medicum preceded the controversial opening by the College of Physicians of the first London Dispensary in 1698, and was published in a maturing period of medical governance and healthcare establishment in London. During the 17th century, great competition and debate existed between the Royal College of Physicians and the apothecaries. Throughout such debates, William Salmon advocated for access to medical care for the poor and recognition of an allied approach to healthcare.This paper discusses Salmon's contribution to medicine, which has been poorly transcribed in medical history. A selection of opiate-based analgesic therapies, early critical care strategies and animal preparations are revisited. A small chronicle of William Salmon's life and professional achievements will be reviewed. Debate surrounding the opening of the first London Dispensary will be discussed in relation to William Salmon's contribution, echoing ongoing contemporary challenges in healthcare over 300 years later.

The real Theriac - panacea, poisonous drug or quackery?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Theriac is considered the most popular cure-all multi-ingredient medicine and has been used for more than two millennia. It has also been used as one of the most important anti-epidemic drugs up to the 19th c., treated as an emergency medicine in case of e.g. bubonic plague. AIM OF THE STUDY: Until now, no reliable information regarding the pharmacological effect of the treacle was available, including its possible toxic or narcotic properties. In order to change the state of knowledge in this matter we have selected the Theriac recipe that had been actually used for producing the treacle in 1630, which was confirmed by the official municipal documents of the time. METHODS: The recipe was written in Latin, with the use of pre-Linnean nomenclature and then apothecary common names, which required translation into the modern scientific language in order to get reliable pharmacological conclusions. The information from historical sources has been compiled with the pharmacological data concerning the most potent compounds, which for the first time made it possible to calculate the amounts of active compounds in the doses taken by then patients. RESULTS: Only two species included in Theriac can be harmful in humans: poppy and sea squill, but in both cases the calculated quantity of morphine and cardiac glycosides, respectively, were below toxic level. There are no indications, both from the historical and pharmacological point of view, for Theriac being toxic or narcotic in patients, when used as prescribed. CONCLUSIONS: As for now, the most probable is that the treacle owed its postulated efficacy in the main indications to the placebo effect. Still, the results should be further confirmed by reconstructing the actual Theriac and subjecting it to modern tests and analyses.

History of hypothalamic research: "The spring of primitive existence".

The central brain region of interest for neuroendocrinology is the hypothalamus, a name coined by Wilhelm His in 1893. Neuroendocrinology is the discipline that studies hormone production by neurons, the sensitivity of neurons for hormones, as well as the dynamic, bidirectional interactions between neurons and endocrine glands. These interactions do not only occur through hormones, but are also partly accomplished by the autonomic nervous system that is regulated by the hypothalamus and that innervates the endocrine glands. A special characteristic of the hypothalamus is that it contains neuroendocrine neurons projecting either to the neurohypophysis or to the portal vessels of the anterior lobe of the pituitary in the median eminence, where they release their neuropeptides or other neuroactive compounds into the bloodstream, which subsequently act as neurohormones. In the 1970s it was found that vasopressin and oxytocin not only are released as hormones in the circulation but that their neurons project to other neurons within and outside the hypothalamus and function as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators that regulate central functions, including the autonomic innervation of all our body organs. Recently magnocellular oxytocin neurons were shown to send not only an axon to the neurohypophysis, but also axon collaterals of the same neuroendocrine neuron to a multitude of brain areas. In this way, the hypothalamus acts as a central integrator for endocrine, autonomic, and higher brain functions. The history of neuroendocrinology is described in this chapter from the descriptions in De humani corporis fabrica by Vesalius (1537) to the present, with a timeline of the scientists and their findings.

[MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF ORTHOPEDICS].

INTRODUCTION: Orthopedics (also - orthopedic surgery) is a field of medicine that deals with diseases, defects, infections, tumors and injuries of the skeletal system, joints and muscles in the human body. The term orthopedics (Greek Orthos = alignment, Pais = child) was first coined in 1741 by the French surgeon Nicolas Andry de Bois-Regard, from Lyon in France, to describe correction and prevention of spinal deformities in children. Only in the second half of the 18th century, did orthopedics separate from general surgery and became a separate specialty in medicine. Much development in the field of orthopedics was achieved due to the various wars and their inevitable results - combat injuries, and following various developments in medicine such as understanding the importance of sterility in surgery, the possibility of surgery under general anesthesia, the use of antibiotics, the development of arthroscopy and fiber-optic equipment and the various imaging options. This article intends to review milestones in the development of orthopedics from the dawn of history in ancient Egypt to the present day, and the first steps of orthopedics in Israel.

La oposición a la Homeopatía desde una perspectiva histórica. Análisis de sus causas / The opposition to Homeopathy from a historical perspective. Analysis of its causes

La contextualización del momento histórico en el que surgió la Homeopatía, la postura que tomó Samuel Hahnemann ante aquellos que la criticaban y algunos de los conceptos que se utilizaron para descalificar el ejercicio de este método médico clínico terapéutico son los fundamentos de este texto. Se destaca, de manera primordial y a la luz de la Historia, el rechazo que sufrió la Homeopatía al interior de algunos grupos de médicos convencionales del siglo XVIII, postura que fue secundada por asociaciones de farmacéuticos que se sintieron amenazados por la posibilidad de que los homeópatas fueran, al mismo tiempo, agentes boticarios responsables de la preparación de sus propios medicamentos.

The following elements are the basis of this text: The contextualization of the historical moment in which Homeopathy arose, the posture taken by Samuel Hahnemann to those who criticized him, and some of the concepts that were used to discredit the practice of this therapeutic clinical method (Homeopathy). In a primordial manner, as shown by history, Homeopathy's rejection inside of some groups of conventional physicians in the 18th century is highlighted. This position was seconded by pharmaceutical associations, which felt threatened by the possibility that homeopaths could also be apothecary agents responsible for the elaboration of their own medications.