Purpureocillium roseum sp. nov. A new ocular pathogen for humans and mice resistant to antifungals.

BACKGROUND: Infectious keratitis is the main cause of preventable blindness worldwide, with about 1.5-2.0 million new cases occurring per year. This inflammatory response may be due to infections caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses or parasites. Fungal keratitis is a poorly studied health problem. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to identify a new fungal species by molecular methods and to explore the possible efficacy of the three most common antifungals used in human keratitis in Mexico by performing in vitro analysis. The capacity of this pathogen to cause corneal infection in a murine model was also evaluated. METHODS: The fungal strain was isolated from a patient with a corneal ulcer. To identify the fungus, taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses (nrDNA ITS and LSU data set) were performed. An antifungal susceptibility assay for amphotericin B, itraconazole and voriconazole was carried out. The fungal isolate was used to develop a keratitis model in BALB/c mice; entire eyes and ocular tissues were preserved and processed for histopathologic examination. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: This fungal genus has hitherto not been reported with human keratitis in Mexico. We described a new species Purpurecillium roseum isolated from corneal infection. P roseum showed resistance to amphotericin B and itraconazole and was sensitive to voriconazole. In vivo study demonstrated that P roseum had capacity to developed corneal infection and to penetrate deeper corneal tissue. The global change in fungal infections has emphasised the need to develop better diagnostic mycology laboratories and to recognise the group of potential fungal pathogens.

Sarocladium and Acremonium infections: New faces of an old opportunistic fungus.

The genera Acremonium and Sarocladium comprise a high diversity of morphologically and genetically related fungi generally found in the environment, although a few species, mainly Sarocladium kiliense and Acremonium egyptiacum, can also be involved in many human infections. Clinical management of opportunistic infections caused by these fungi is very complex, since their correct identification is unreliable, and they generally show poor antifungal response. More than 300 clinical cases involving a broad range of Acremonium/Sarocladium infections have so far been published, and with this review we aim to compile and provide a detailed overview of the current knowledge on Acremonium/Sarocladium human infections in terms of presentation, diagnosis, treatments and prognoses. We also aim to summarise and discuss the data currently available on their antifungal susceptibility, emphasising the promising results obtained with voriconazole as well as their impact in terms of animal infections.

Genome Sequence Resource for Ilyonectria mors-panacis, Causing Rusty Root Rot of Panax notoginseng.

Ilyonectria mors-panacis is the cause of a serious disease hampering the production of Panax notoginseng, an important Chinese medicinal herb, widely used for its anti-inflammatory, antifatigue, hepato-protective, and coronary heart disease prevention effects. Here, we report the first Illumina-Pacbio hybrid sequenced draft genome assembly of I. mors-panacis strain G3B and its annotation. The availability of this genome sequence not only represents an important tool toward understanding the genetics behind the infection mechanism of I. mors-panacis strain G3B but also will help illuminate the complexities of the taxonomy of this species.

Discovery of differential sequences for improving breeding and yield of cultivated Ophiocordyceps sinensis through ITS sequencing and phylogenetic analysis.

To accelerate the breeding process of cultivated Ophiocordyceps sinensis and increase its yield, it is important to identify molecular fingerprint of dominant O. sinensis. In the present study, we collected 3 batches of industrially cultivated O. sinensis product with higher yield than the others and compared their internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences with the wild and the reported. The ITS sequence was obtained by bidirectional sequencing and analyzed with molecular systematics as a DNA barcode for rapid and accurate identification of wild and cultivated O. sinensis collected. The ITS sequences of O. sinensis with detailed collection loci on NCBI were downloaded to construct a phylogenetic tree together with the sequences obtained from the present study by using neighbor-joining method based on their evolution relationship. The information on collection loci was analyzed with ArcGIS 10.2 to demonstrate the geographic distribution of these samples and thus to determine the origin of the dominant samples. The results showed that all wild and cultivated samples were identified as O. sinensis and all sequences were divided into seven phylogenetic groups in the tree. Those groups were precisely distributed on the map and the process of their system evolution was clearly presented. The three cultivated samples were clustered into two dominant groups, showing the correlation between the industrially cultivated samples and the dominant wild samples, which can provide references for its optimized breeding in the future.

Cytological Characterization of Anamorphic Fungus Lecanicillium pui and Its Relationship with Chinese Caterpillar Mushroom, Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycetes).

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn. Cordyceps sinensis), one of the most valuable medicinal mushrooms, has great economic importance on the Tibetan Plateau. We isolated an anamorphic fungus Lecanicillium pui from natural O. sinensis specimens and found that the optimal temperature for its culture on potato dextrose agar media was 25°C. Cell ultrastructure in L. pui hyphae and spores was characterized by transmission electron microscopy, and it was observed that some primary organelles showed the typical fungal features. Five chemical elements were determined in this fungus and niobium was discovered for the first time even with trace amounts. A species-specific method, nested polymerase chain reaction, was established to investigate the colonization of this fungus. Thus, the extensive distribution of L. pui on O. sinensis, in the shape of hyphae or mycelia, suggested that it may have subtle and chronic effects on the growth of the O. sinensis teleomorphic stage. These findings provide a potential reference, in the view of microbial ecology, for the study on the occurrence and mechanism of development of O. sinensis.

[Progress on molecular biology of Isaria farinosa, pathogen of host of Ophiocordyceps sinensis during the artificial culture].

Isaria farinosa is the pathogen of the host of Ophiocordyceps sinensis. The present research has analyzed the progress on the molecular biology according to the bibliometrics, the sequences (including the gene sequences) of I. farinosa in the NCBI. The results indicated that different country had published different number of the papers, and had landed different kinds and different number of the sequences (including the gene sequences). China had published the most number of the papers, and had landed the most number of the sequences (including the gene sequences). America had landed the most numbers of the function genes. The main content about the pathogen study was focus on the biological controlling. The main content about the molecular study concentrated on the phylogenies classification. In recent years some protease genes and chitinase genes had been researched. With the increase of the effect on the healthy of O. sinensis, and the whole sequence and more and more pharmacological activities of I. farinosa being made known to the public, the study on the molecular biology of the I. farinosa would be deeper and wider.

[Indiscriminate use of Latin name for natural Cordyceps sinensis insect-fungi complex and multiple Ophiocordyceps sinensis fungi].

Natural Cordyceps sinensis(Dongchongxiacao) is an insect-fungi complex containing multiple Ophiocordyceps sinensis(≡Cordyceps sinensis) fungi and dead body of larva of the family of Hepialidae. But natural C. sinensis and O. sinensis fungi use the same Latin name, resulting in uncertainty of the specific meaning, even disturbing the formulation and implementation of governmental policies and regulations, and influencing consumer psychology onthe market. This paper reviews the history and current status of the indiscriminate use of the Latin name O. sinensis for both the natural insect-fungi complex C. sinensis and O. sinensis fungi and lists the rename suggetions. Some scholars suggested using the term O. sinensis for the fungi and renaming the natural C. sinensis "Chinese cordyceps". Others suggested renaming the natural C. sinensis "Ophiocordyceps & Hepialidae". Both suggestions have not reached general consensus due to various academic concerns. This paper also reviews the exacerbation of the academic uncertainties when forcing implementing the 2011 Amsterdam Declaration "One Fungus=One Name" under the academic debate. Joint efforts of mycological, zoological and botany-TCM taxonomists and properly initiating the dispute systems offered by International Mycology Association may solve the debate on the indiscriminate use of the Latin name O.sinensis for the natural insect-fungi complex,the teleomorph and anamorph(s) of O. sinensis fungi.

Application of Differential Proteomic Analysis to Authenticate Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. is one of the most well-known fungi in traditional Chinese medicine and is attracting attention because of its nutritious and medicinal properties. The present study aimed to produce a proteomic map to identify common O. sinensis proteins. The caterpillar body and stroma of O. sinensis collected from five locations and four fungal specimens of similar appearance were examined by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). Five proteins were identified using MALDI-TOF--TOF/MS, and the 2-DE identification pattern was provided. OCS_04585 and ß-lactamase domain-containing protein, the two abundant and characteristic proteins, were separated and purified using liquid-phase isoelectric focusing. The products were high-quality materials that can be used for future protein-function studies and immunoassay development.

Molecular Cloning and Characterization of a Subtilisin-Like Serine Protease Gene (Pr1) from the Medicinal Chinese Caterpillar Mushroom, Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycetes).

In the Chinese caterpillar mushroom Ophiocordyceps sinensis, a subtislin-like serine protease (Pr1) is one of the most important enzymes for its infection activity against insect cuticles. The Pr1 gene was isolated from the valuable Chinese medicinal fungus O. sinensis using rapid amplification of 5' and 3' complementary DNA ends. The 2079-bp full-length complementary DNA sequence containing the 1605-bp predicted open reading frame of the Pr1 gene was obtained (GenBank accession no. KF836756). The open reading frame encodes a protein comprising 534 amino acids. Protein sequence multiple alignment analysis revealed high homology with 16 other subtilisin serine proteases and exhibited the highly conserved catalytic domain (D195, H227, and S393). We also constructed a phylogenetic tree in this study. Further molecular studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms of fungal infection.

Non-concerted ITS evolution in fungi, as revealed from the important medicinal fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) has been widely used as a molecular marker in phylogenetic studies and has been selected as a DNA barcode for fungi. It is generally believed that nrDNA conforms to concerted evolution in most eukaryotes; however, intraindividual-intraspecific polymorphisms of this region were reported in various organisms, suggesting a non-concerted evolutionary process. In Ophiocordyceps sinensis, one of the most valuable medicinal fungi, a remarkable variation of the ITS region has been revealed. Some highly divergent sequences were thought to represent cryptic species, different species or genotypes in previous studies. To clarify the unusual ITS polymorphisms observed in O. sinensis, specific primers were designed to amplify ITS paralogs from pure cultures of both single-ascospore and tissue isolates in this study. All of the available ITS sequences, including those generated by this group and those in GenBank, were analyzed. Several AT-biased ITS paralogs were classified as pseudogenes based on their nucleotide compositions, secondary structures and minimum free energies of their 5.8S rRNAs, substitution rates, phylogenetic positions and gene expression analyses. Furthermore, ITS pseudogenes were amplified with specific primers from 10 of the 28 strains tested, including eight single-ascospore and two tissue isolates. Divergent ITS paralogs were proved to coexist in individual genomes, suggesting a non-concerted mechanism of evolution in the ITS region of O. sinensis. The hypotheses that divergent ITS paralogs represent cryptic or other species or different genotypes were thus rejected.

Detection of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in soil by quantitative real-time PCR.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis, one of the best known entomopathogenic fungi in traditional Chinese medicine, parasitizes larvae of the moth genus Thitarodes, which lives in soil tunnels. However, little is known about the spatial distribution of O. sinensis in the soil. We established a protocol for DNA extraction, purification, and quantification of O. sinensis in soil with quantitative real-time PCR targeting the internal transcribed spacer region. The method was assessed using 34 soil samples from Tibet. No inhibitory effects in purified soil DNA extracts were detected. The standard curve method for absolute DNA quantification generated crossing point values that were strongly and linearly correlated to the log10 of the initial amount of O. sinensis genomic DNA (r(2) = 0.999) over 7 orders of magnitude (4 × 10(1) to 4 × 10(7) fg). The amplification efficiency and y-intercept value of the standard curve were 1.953 and 37.70, respectively. The amount of O. sinensis genomic DNA decreased with increasing soil depth and horizontal distance from a sclerotium (P < 0.05). Our protocol is rapid, specific, sensitive, and provides a powerful tool for quantification of O. sinensis from soil.

A survey of the geographic distribution of Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis is one of the best known fungi in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Many efforts have been devoted to locating the production areas of this species resulting in various reports; however, its geographic distribution remains incompletely understood. Distribution of O. sinensis at the county level is clarified in this work based on both a literature search and fieldwork. More than 3600 publications related to O. sinensis were investigated, including scientific papers, books, and online information. Herbarium specimens of O. sinensis and field collections made by this research group during the years 2000-2010 were examined to verify the distribution sites. A total of 203 localities for O. sinensis have been found, of which 106 are considered as confirmed distribution sites, 65 as possible distribution sites, 29 as excluded distribution sites and three as suspicious distribution sites. The results show that O. sinensis is confined to the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding regions, including Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces in China and in certain areas of the southern flank of the Himalayas, in the countries of Bhutan, India and Nepal, with 3,000 m as the lowest altitude for the distribution. The fungus is distributed from the southernmost site in Yulong Naxi Autonomous County in northwestern Yunnan Province to the northernmost site in the Qilian Mountains in Qilian County, Qinghai Province, and from the east edge of the Tibetan Plateau in Wudu County, Gansu Province to the westernmost site in Uttarakhand, India. The clarification of the geographic distribution of O. sinensis will lay the foundation for conservation and sustainable use of the species.

Cloning and analysis of the MAT1-2-1 gene from the traditional Chinese medicinal fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

The entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis has been important in traditional Chinese medicine but has yet to be commercially cultivated. One bottleneck is the very low frequency of stromata formation from artificially infected moth larvae. The mating system of fungi is the determining factor for sexual reproduction, but mating-type genes of O. sinensis have not been previously investigated. In this study, the putative mating-type gene MAT1-2-1 within the MAT1-2 idiomorph was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and was determined to consist of 859 nucleotides that encode 249 amino acids; genes within the MAT1-1 idiomorph, however, were not determined. The MAT1-2-1 gene contained the conserved high-mobility group (HMG) box, and MAT1-2-1 flanking sequences were subsequently obtained. Although no putative open reading frames of the MAT1-1 idiomorph were detected within the ca. 8-kb flanking sequences of MAT1-2-1, a putative DNA lyase gene (which is present next to both idiomorphs in some heterothallic fungi) was found ca. 3.0 kb downstream of MAT1-2-1. The intervening distance between MAT1-2-1 and the DNA lyase gene in O. sinensis is larger than that in Cordyceps militaris and Cordyceps takaomontana. In addition, O. sinensis showed low sequence similarities with C. militaris and C. takaomontana in both MAT1-2-1 and the DNA lyase gene. In the phylogenetic tree, different MAT1-2-1 haplotypes of O. sinensis clustered together with high bootstrap support. As a single-copy gene, MAT1-2-1 was detected in all examined O. sinensis isolates including tissue cultures and single-ascospore cultures. This report describes, for the first time, a mating-type gene of O. sinensis.

Enzymes hydrolyzing structural components and ferrous ion cause rusty-root symptom on ginseng (Panax ginseng).

Microbial induction of rusty-root was proved in this study. The enzymes hydrolyzing plant structural materials, including pectinase, pectolyase, ligninase, and cellulase, caused the rusty-root in ginseng. Pectinase and pectolyase produced the highest rusty-color formation. Ferrous ion (Fe+++) caused the synergistic effect on rusty-root formation in ginseng when it was used with pectinase. The effect of ferric ion (Fe++) on rusty-root formation was slow, compared with Fe+++, probably due to gradual oxidation to Fe+++. Other metal ions including the ferric ion (Fe++) did not affect rusty-root formation. The endophytic bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Lysobacter gummosus, Pseudomonas veronii, Pseudomonas marginalis, Rhodococcus erythropolis, and Rhodococcus globerulus, and the rotten-root forming phytophathogenic fungus Cylindrocarpon destructans, caused rusty-root. The polyphenol formation (rusty color) was not significantly different between microorganisms. The rotten-root-forming C. destructans produced large quantities of external cellulase activity (about 2.3 U[micronM/min/mg protein]), which indicated the pathogenecity of the fungus, whereas the bacteria produced 0.1-0.7 U. The fungal external pectinase activities (0.05 U) and rusty-root formation activity were similar to those of the bacteria. In this report, we proved that microbial hydrolyzing enzymes caused rusty-root (Hue value 15 degrees) of ginseng, and ferrous ion worsened the symptom.

rDNA-targeted PCR primers and FISH probe in the detection of Ophiocordyceps sinensis hyphae and conidia.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sung, Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora (syn. Cordyceps sinensis) one of the entomopathogenic fungi, is a rare Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) found in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) methods are necessary to identify the mycelia or spores of O. sinensis from its habitat and to monitor its dispersal, colonization and infectivity. To develop both primers and probe specific to O. sinensis, ribosomal DNA (rDNA) amplified with universal primers from O. sinensis genomic DNA and seven closely related fungi were sequenced. According to these sequences, the upper and lower primers (OsT-F and OsT-R) were designed within internal transcribed spacer region 1 (ITS1) and ITS2 and flanked by universal primers ITS5 and ITS4, respectively. The designed primers were used for general PCR, touchdown PCR, or both together with the universal primers for nested-touchdown PCR. The results showed that only the extracted DNA of O. sinensis was specifically amplified. The sensitivity of nested-touchdown PCR with extracted DNA of O. sinensis is as low as 10(-14)g (10 fg) and at least 1000 times higher than the other PCR methods. In addition, Cy5-labeled probe (OsLSU) for cytoplasmic LSU rRNA was hybridized with the ascospores of O. sinensis. It showed a strong red fluorescence throughout the whole cell but did not cross-react with other entomopathogenic fungi. Taken together, these methods were useful for studying the biology and ecology of O. sinensis.

[Fungal biotransformation of ginsenoside Rg3].

OBJECTIVE: Ginsenosides are important bioactive compounds in Ginseng. Sugar chains of ginsenosides are closely related to the bioactivity. Rare ginsenosides can be achieved by modifying sugar chains through biotransformation. Samples of Ginseng root soils, collected from Changbai Mountain, were used to screen active microorganism which can transform total ginsenosides and single ginsenoside, so as to obtain anti-tumor components. METHODS: The strains were isolated and screened on solid transfer medium and yield transfer process for active strains. Then the active strains were tested for their biotransformation properties by using different purified ginsenosides, including ginsenoside Rg3. The biotransformation products were separated and purified through column chromatography on silica gel (300mesh), and identified by spectral analysis and physical constants. Simultaneously, the active strain was identified based on morphological characteristics of colonies, conidium and conidiophore, as well as ITS-5.8S rDNA sequences. RESULTS: Total 68 fungal strains were isolated and 12 active strains showed positive activity on total ginsenosides. One strain, SYP2353, was found to have the strong activity on Rg3. CONCLUSION: The active strain SYP2353 was identified as Myrothecium verrucaria, and the biotransformation products of Rg3 were identified to be rare ginsenoside Rh2 and aglycon PPD.

Phylogenetic origins of African and Neotropical Beauveria bassiana s.l. pathogens of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei.

A phylogenetic epidemiological study of Beauveria bassiana s.l. was conducted for African and Neotropical pathogens of the coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei, based on inferences from two nuclear intergenic regions, EFutr and Bloc. CBB pathogens were distributed among four terminal clades, however, the majority of African and Neotropical isolates cluster in a well-supported monophyletic group, informally designated AFNEO_1. Although the relationship between African and Neotropical AFNEO_1 is unresolved, the majority of alleles detected were exclusive to either the African or the Neotropical populations. These fixed genetic differences suggest that their disjunction predates the world trade in coffee. Neotropical AFNEO_1 have a broad host range and CBB pathogens are intermixed phylogenetically with isolates from diverse indigenous insects. Several Neotropical AFNEO_1 isolates were isolated from coffee plants as epiphytes or endophytes, thus plants themselves may potentially serve as reservoirs of pathogens against their insect pests. Topological incongruence between the EFutr and Bloc phylogenies of Neotropical AFNEO_1 may signify that individuals within this population are recombining.

Anti-oxidation activity of different types of natural Cordyceps sinensis and cultured Cordyceps mycelia.

Cordyceps, one of the well-known traditional Chinese medicines, consists of the dried fungus Cordyceps sinensis growing on the larva of the caterpillar. It is commonly used for the replenishment of body health. One of the known pharmacological effects is its anti-oxidation activity. However, there is a great variation of the quality in different sources of Cordyceps. Here, the water extracts of various sources of natural C. sinensis and cultured Cordyceps mycelia were analyzed for their anti-oxidation activity by using three different assay methods such as the xanthine oxidase assay, the induction of hemolysis assay and the lipid peroxidation assay. The results showed that Cordyceps, in general, possesses a strong anti-oxidation activity in all assays tested. However, both natural and cultured Cordyceps showed the lowest inhibition in the lipid peroxidation when compared with the other two assay methods. The cultured Cordyceps mycelia had equally strong anti-oxidation activity as compared to the natural Cordyceps. Besides, the anti-oxidation activities were increased to 10-30 folds in the partially purified polysaccharide fractions from the cultured Cordyceps mycelia, which suggested that the activity could be derived partly from Cordyceps polysaccharides.

The determination of the partial 18 S ribosomal DNA sequences of Cordyceps species.

Cordyceps species, which are used in Chinese traditional medicines, are fungal parasites of insects. In this study the partial nucleotide sequences of 18 S ribosomal DNA from four Cordyceps species were determined and compared with the sequences of published ascomycetes. The sequence data support the concept that Cordyceps species belong to the pyrenomycetes. Based on sequence data the phylogenetic tree was constructed using the neighbor-joining (NJ) method. Diversity in the phylogenetic tree was found for Cordyceps species. A new classification of Cordyceps species can be constructed based on the phylogenetic information obtained from such rDNA sequences.