Melting, smelting, and recycling: A regional study around the Late Bronze Age mining site of Prigglitz-Gasteil, Lower Austria.

This paper presents a study on copper production and distribution in Lower Austria's southeastern region during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1350-800 BC), with the focal point being the chemistry and isotopic character of artifacts from a small copper mining site at Prigglitz-Gasteil on the Eastern Alps' easternmost fringe. Ores, casting cakes, and select objects from the Late Bronze Age mining site at Prigglitz-Gasteil, Lower-Austria, and within 15 km of its surroundings, were chemically and isotopically analysed using XRF, NAA, and MC-ICPMS. The importance of Prigglitz-Gasteil as a local mining and metal processing center is evaluated based on the produced data, and the distribution and sourcing of copper-producing materials found at the site are discussed. Special attention is paid to the mixing of scrap and source materials early in the metal production process. The most salient discussions focus on the variability of the chemistry and Pb isotopic ratios of the studied objects, which seem to constitute a multitude of source materials, unlike the pure chalcopyrite-source copper produced from the Prigglitz-Gasteil mine itself. The analytical data suggests that copper alloys were mainly imported from materials originating in the Slovakian Ore Mountains, which were subsequently mixed/recycled with relatively pure locally produced copper. The purity of the copper from Prigglitz-Gasteil was fortuitous in identifying imported copper that contained measurable amounts of Pb and other chemically distinct characteristics. The chaîne opératoire of metal production at the site is mentioned; however, it is clear that additional information on the region's geochemistry is required before any finite conclusions on the ore-to-metal production can be made.

Copper to Tuscany - Coals to Newcastle? The dynamics of metalwork exchange in early Italy.

The paper discusses results of an interdisciplinary research project integrating lead isotope, chemical, and archaeological analysis of 20 early metal objects from central Italy. The aim of the research was to develop robust provenance hypotheses for 4th and 3rd millennia BC metals from an important, yet hitherto neglected, metallurgical district in prehistoric Europe, displaying precocious copper mining and smelting, as well as socially significant uses of metals in 'Rinaldone-style' burials. All major (and most minor) ore bodies from Tuscany and neighbouring regions were characterised chemically and isotopically, and 20 Copper Age axe-heads, daggers and halberds were sampled and analysed. The objects were also reassessed archaeologically, paying special attention to find context, typology, and chronology. This multi-pronged approach has allowed us to challenge received wisdom concerning the local character of early metal production and exchange in the region. The research has shown that most objects were likely manufactured in west-central Italy using copper from Southern Tuscany and, quite possibly, the Apuanian Alps. A few objects, however, display isotopic and chemical signatures compatible with the Western Alpine and, in one case, French ore deposits. This shows that the Copper Age communities of west-central Italy participated in superregional exchange networks tying together the middle/upper Tyrrhenian region, the western Alps, and perhaps the French Midi. These networks were largely independent from other metal displacement circuits in operation at the time, which embraced the north-Alpine region and the south-eastern Alps, respectively.

Methodological issues in the Indo-European debate.

The Indo-European debate has been going on for a century and a half. Initially confined to linguistics, race-based anthropology and comparative mythology, it soon extended to archaeology, especially with the discovery of the Harappan civilization, and peripheral disciplines such as agriculture, archaeometallurgy or archaeoastronomy. The latest entrant in the field, archaeogenetics, is currently all but claiming that it has finally laid to rest the whole issue of a hypothetical migration of Indo-Aryan speakers to the Indian subcontinent in the second millennium BCE. This paper questions the finality of this claim by pointing to inherent limitations, methodological issues and occasional biases in current studies as well as in the interpretation of archaeological evidence.

On the trail of Scandinavia's early metallurgy: Provenance, transfer and mixing.

The rich and long-lasting Nordic Bronze Age was dependent throughout on incoming flows of copper and tin. The crucial turning point for the development of the NBA can be pinpointed as the second phase of the Late Neolithic (LN II, c. 2000-1700 BC) precisely because the availability and use of metal increased markedly at this time. But the precise provenance of copper reaching Scandinavia in the early second millennium is still unclear and our knowledge about the driving force leading to the establishment of the Bronze Age in southern Scandinavia is fragmentary and incomplete. This study, drawing on a large data set of 210 samples representing almost 50% of all existing metal objects known from this period in Denmark, uses trace element (EDXRF) and isotope analyses (MC-ICP-MS) of copper-based artifacts in combination with substantial typological knowledge to profoundly illuminate the contact directions, networks and routes of the earliest metal supplies. It also presents the first investigation of local recycling or mixing of metals originating from different ore regions. Both continuity and change emerge clearly in the metal-trading networks of the Late Neolithic to the first Bronze Age period. Artifacts in LN II consist mainly of high-impurity copper (so-called fahlore type copper), with the clear exception of British imports. Targeted reuse of foreign artifacts in local production is demonstrated by the presence of British metal in local-style axes. The much smaller range of lead isotope ratios among locally crafted compared to imported artifacts is also likely due to mixing. In the latter half of Nordic LN II (1800-1700 BC), the first signs emerge of a new and distinct type of copper with low impurity levels, which gains enormously in importance later in NBA IA.

Exceptionally high levels of lead pollution in the Balkans from the Early Bronze Age to the Industrial Revolution.

The Balkans are considered the birthplace of mineral resource exploitation and metalworking in Europe. However, since knowledge of the timing and extent of metallurgy in southeastern Europe is largely constrained by discontinuous archaeological findings, the long-term environmental impact of past mineral resource exploitation is not fully understood. Here, we present a high-resolution and continuous geochemical record from a peat bog in western Serbia, providing a clear indication of the extent and magnitude of environmental pollution in this region, and a context in which to place archaeological findings. We observe initial evidence of anthropogenic lead (Pb) pollution during the earliest part of the Bronze Age [∼3,600 years before Common Era (BCE)], the earliest such evidence documented in European environmental records. A steady, almost linear increase in Pb concentration after 600 BCE, until ∼1,600 CE is observed, documenting the development in both sophistication and extent of southeastern European metallurgical activity throughout Antiquity and the medieval period. This provides an alternative view on the history of mineral exploitation in Europe, with metal-related pollution not ceasing at the fall of the western Roman Empire, as was the case in western Europe. Further comparison with other Pb pollution records indicates the amount of Pb deposited in the Balkans during the medieval period was, if not greater, at least similar to records located close to western European mining regions, suggestive of the key role the Balkans have played in mineral resource exploitation in Europe over the last 5,600 years.

Pollution and Oral Bioaccessibility of Pb in Soils of Villages and Cities with a Long Habitation History.

The Dutch cities Utrecht and Wijk bij Duurstede were founded by the Romans around 50 B.C. and the village Fijnaart and Graft-De Rijp around 1600 A.D. The soils of these villages are polluted with Pb (up to ~5000 mg/kg). Lead isotope ratios were used to trace the sources of Pb pollution in the urban soils. In ~75% of the urban soils the source of the Pb pollution was a mixture of glazed potsherd, sherds of glazed roof tiles, building remnants (Pb sheets), metal slag, Pb-based paint flakes and coal ashes. These anthropogenic Pb sources most likely entered the urban soils due to historical smelting activities, renovation and demolition of houses, disposal of coal ashes and raising and fertilization of land with city waste. Since many houses still contain Pb-based building materials, careless renovation or demolition can cause new or more extensive Pb pollution in urban soils. In ~25% of the studied urban topsoils, Pb isotope compositions suggest Pb pollution was caused by incinerator ash and/or gasoline Pb suggesting atmospheric deposition as the major source. The bioaccessible Pb fraction of 14 selected urban soils was determined with an in vitro test and varied from 16% to 82% of total Pb. The bioaccessibility appears related to the chemical composition and grain size of the primary Pb phases and pollution age. Risk assessment based on the in vitro test results imply that risk to children may be underestimated in ~90% of the studied sample sites (13 out of 14).

A New Chronology for the Bronze Age of Northeastern Thailand and Its Implications for Southeast Asian Prehistory.

There are two models for the origins and timing of the Bronze Age in Southeast Asia. The first centres on the sites of Ban Chiang and Non Nok Tha in Northeast Thailand. It places the first evidence for bronze technology in about 2000 B.C., and identifies the origin by means of direct contact with specialists of the Seima Turbino metallurgical tradition of Central Eurasia. The second is based on the site of Ban Non Wat, 280 km southwest of Ban Chiang, where extensive radiocarbon dating places the transition into the Bronze Age in the 11th century B.C. with likely origins in a southward expansion of technological expertise rooted in the early states of the Yellow and Yangtze valleys, China. We have redated Ban Chiang and Non Nok Tha, as well as the sites of Ban Na Di and Ban Lum Khao, and here present 105 radiocarbon determinations that strongly support the latter model. The statistical analysis of the results using a Bayesian approach allows us to examine the data at a regional level, elucidate the timing of arrival of copper base technology in Southeast Asia and consider its social impact.

Environmental legacy of copper metallurgy and Mongol silver smelting recorded in Yunnan Lake sediments.

Geochemical measurements on well-dated sediment cores from Lake Er (Erhai) are used to determine the timing of changes in metal concentrations over 4500 years in Yunnan, a borderland region in southwestern China noted for rich mineral deposits but with inadequately documented metallurgical history. Our findings add new insight into the impacts and environmental legacy of human exploitation of metal resources in Yunnan history. We observe an increase in copper at 1500 BC resulting from atmospheric emissions associated with metallurgy. These data clarify the chronological issues related to links between the onset of Yunnan metallurgy and the advent of bronze technology in adjacent Southeast Asia, subjects that have been debated for nearly half a century. We also observe an increase from 1100 to 1300 AD in a number of heavy metals including lead, silver, zinc, and cadmium from atmospheric emissions associated with silver smelting. Culminating during the rule of the Mongols, known as the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD), these metal concentrations approach levels three to four times higher than those from industrialized mining activity occurring within the catchment today. Notably, the concentrations of lead approach levels at which harmful effects may be observed in aquatic organisms. The persistence of this lead pollution over time created an environmental legacy that likely contributes to known issues in modern day sediment quality. We demonstrate that historic metallurgical production in Yunnan can cause substantial impacts on the sediment quality of lake systems, similar to other paleolimnological findings around the globe.

[Lead poisoning: towards a paleo-epidemiologic re-interpretation?]. / Saturnisme: vers une reconnaissance paléoépidémiologique?

Lead is a major public health issue. Its use has been increasing since Neolithic times, climaxing in the Ancient Rome and the nineteenth century. Defining the frequency of plumbism before modern times proves to be a difficult matter because of its various and delayed symptoms, and of diagenetic processes affecting bones. After reviewing various methods of lead measurement in bone and tooth, we will expose ways to ascertain lead measurement interpretation in order to estimate the epidemiology of plumbism in ancient times.

The aluminum smelting process.

This introduction to the industrial primary aluminum production process presents a short description of the electrolytic reduction technology, the history of aluminum, and the importance of this metal and its production process to modern society. Aluminum's special qualities have enabled advances in technologies coupled with energy and cost savings. Aircraft capabilities have been greatly enhanced, and increases in size and capacity are made possible by advances in aluminum technology. The metal's flexibility for shaping and extruding has led to architectural advances in energy-saving building construction. The high strength-to-weight ratio has meant a substantial reduction in energy consumption for trucks and other vehicles. The aluminum industry is therefore a pivotal one for ecological sustainability and strategic for technological development.

Estimating historic exposures at the European Gaseous Diffusion plants.

This paper describes the methods and results of an occupational exposure assessment covering 30 years of operation of the EURODIF establishment (1978-2008). The exposure assessment includes radiological, physical and chemical hazards, and takes into account of organizational changes at the establishment. Furthermore, it includes efforts to better quantify the levels of exposures using available industrial hygiene and health physics data. In total, 227 workers participated in the assessment of 26 different occupational exposures in 102 general workstations through 1978-2008. Only 7% of exposure levels were rectified by experts for internal consistency reasons. Noise, heat, trichloroethylene and soluble uranium compounds were the most prevalent exposures at the plant although their levels tended to decrease across time. Assessments of occupational exposure to noise based on JEM exposure levels were fairly well correlated with noise measurement data (Spearman's correlation coefficient, ρ=0.43) while JEM-based assessments of uranium exposure were not well correlated with uranium atmospheric measurements. This study demonstrates the importance of non-radiological exposure in the nuclear fuel industry and highlights the difficulties in managing the risks arising from these exposures. Occupational exposures remain difficult to quantify due to the scarcity of reliable monitoring data and the absence of binding occupational exposure limits for some of considered hazards.

Metallurgy, environmental pollution and the decline of Etruscan civilisation.

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE: The Etruscans were justifiably famous in antiquity for their advanced metallurgy and for the rich mineral resources of their region (including La Tolfa, the Colline Metallifere, Mont'Amiata and Elba). We offer a new perspective on certain Iron Age and Archaic (ca. 1,000-480 BC: ) Etruscan industrial and habitation sites, and on the problem of heavy metal poisoning, still being investigated today, coincidentally in some of the same areas that originally saw Etruscan mines and workshops. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study investigates ancient sources, including literature and excavation reports, in the light of modern studies of heavy metal poisoning on human beings, plant and animal life. Furthermore, it is the first to use non-invasive Niton X-ray fluorescence analysis of samples of Etruscan (strictly ethnically Faliscan) hair (c. 350 BCE: ). RESULTS: The findings show the strong likelihood of heavy metal poisoning in areas of Etruscan metallurgical activity with the effects of this being responsible for or contributing to the abandonment of a number of these sites around the 6th century BC: . No thoroughly satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon has previously been offered. However, findings suggest that Faliscan women, represented by sample CG 2004-6-2, were not exposed to high levels of arsenic in life, which is not perhaps surprising for an urban aristocratic woman of the mid-4th century BC: . DISCUSSION: The reasons for the abandonment of several flourishing settlements are without doubt complex, and include political and social change. We suggest heavy metal contamination as an additional stimulus to the noted phenomenon of the peaceful abandonment, at the beginning, and at the end of the 6th century BC: , of sites in southern and northern Etruria such as Marsiliana d'Albegna (late 7th c.), Lago dell'Accesa, Acquarossa and Poggio Civitate-Murlo (late 6th c.). CONCLUSIONS: While the historical truth of the demise of Etruscan civilisation is much more complex, an interim set of related events, the desertion of several important settlements during and at the end of the Archaic period, might actually have been stimulated by the consequences of industrial pollution and arsenic poisoning. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: We call for archaeologists and curators to test any available human and animal remains in their museums and collections for evidence of heavy metal poisoning, taking due caution and consideration of course to the relevance of the aristocracy, and urge the application of analytical techniques developed in response to this serious modern problem, to provide additional insights into the ancient situation.

Record of metal workshops in peat deposits: history and environmental impact on the Mont Lozère Massif, France.

This study aims to document the history of the metallurgical activities on the Mont Lozère massif in the Cévennes Mountains in Southern France. Many medieval sites of metallurgical wastes (slags) have been reported on the massif. These sites are thought to represent ancient lead workshops. The impact of past metallurgical activity on the environment was studied using geochemical and palynological techniques on a core collected in the Narses Mortes peatland near medieval smelting area. Two main periods of smelting activities during the last 2200 years were revealed bythe lead concentration and isotopic composition along the core profile: the first period corresponds to the Gallic period (approximately ca. 300 B.C. to ca. 20 A.D.) and the second one to the Medieval period (approximately ca. 1000-1300 A.D.). Forest disturbances are associated with lead anomalies for the two metallurgical activities described. The impact of the first metallurgy was moderate during the Gallic period, during which beech and birch were the tree species most affected. The second period corresponds to the observed slag present in the field. Along with agropastoral activities, the medieval smelting activities led to the definitive disappearance of all tree species on the summit zones of Mont Lozère. The abundance of ore resources and the earlier presence of wood on the massif justify the presence of workshops at this place. The relationship between mines and ores has been documented for the Medieval period. There is no archaeological proof concerning the Gallic activity. Nevertheless, 2500-2100 years ago, the borders of the Gallic Tribe territory, named the Gabales, were the same as the present-day borders of the Lozère department. Julius Caesar reported the existence of this tribe in 58 B.C. in "De Bello Gallico", and in Strabon (Book IV, 2.2) the "Gabales silver" and a "treasure of Gabales" are mentioned, but to this day, they have not been found.

Historical change of heavy metals in urban soils of Nanjing, China during the past 20 centuries.

Two typical areas, including once commercial and residential quarters of Nanjing, China, were studied by investigating soil properties especially heavy metals of soils in various cultural layers formed in different Chinese Dynasties. The age of the soil profiles was dated by both archaeological and 14C chronological methods. The results showed that urban soils in the old commercial/workshop quarter of Nanjing were generally contaminated by heavy metals Cu, Zn, Pb, but their concentration levels varied significantly among the cultural layers formed in different dynasties. The substantial increase of heavy metals appeared in three historical periods, i.e., South Dynasty (222-589 AD), the earlier Ming (1368-1644 AD) and the late Qing (1644-1912 AD) in one area. The tremendous input and storage of heavy metals in soils was explained by the primitive smelting and the strengthened metal processing activities, which might be due to the requirement of weapon making or other industries, in the changing social conditions of the corresponding periods. Soils in the once noble political, cultural centers did not show significant increase of heavy metals. The difference in the distribution pattern of heavy metals revealed the contrasting history of the site uses. The change of contaminant level in soils is believed to be a reflection of various human activities in the city during the past 20 centuries.

[Reconstruction of an ancient Egytian mouth-opening device. As early as 5000 years ago artificial respiration was basically possible]. / Rekonstruktion des altägyptischen Mundöffnungsgeräts. Schon vor 5000 Jahren war künstliche Beatmung grundsätzlich machbar.

Reproduction of an ancient Egyptian mouth-opening device raises certain technological and historical questions. The most effective variation has proven to be a device made of strip iron built exactly according to the proportions given in the Hunefer papyrus. This device allows quick and safe intubation of intubation dummy CLA 8 without a supplementary light source. Originally, the device was a metal instrument made of meteoric iron, apparently produced only in small numbers. To data, the form of production remains a mystery, since the smelting and processing of iron was totally uncommon in ancient Egypt. Based on the material structure of the device and certain portrayals in graves in Deir el-Medina, mouth-opening as it was actually performed reveals a methodology that can be reconciled with modern pre-clinical polytrauma management. In principle, this indicates that the introduction of artificial respiration thousands of years ago would have been possible.

The dawn of dentistry: dentistry among the Etruscans.

The Etruscans were a group of agricultural people who evolved into an urban population of craftsmen, traders, and navigators who lived in a network of cities and dominated the area of the Mediterranean around Italy in the 8th and 9th centuries BC. What has come to be known, and is of importance in our study of the history of dentistry are a significant number of very interesting works of art which include gold dental prostheses. The Etruscan prostheses are remarkable because they used gold bands which were soldered into rings instead of the gold wires which are seen in other cultures (Egyptians, Phoenicians) of the same time.

Occupational exposure to lead in ancient times.

The uses and regional production of lead in ancient times are summarized. Since there is no evidence to suggest that any deliberate attempts were made to curtail personal exposure to the mine dusts or the emissions from the forges and crucibles, it is surmised that many of the ancient artisans who worked with lead probably contracted plumbism. The number of workers so exposed is estimated to be over 140,000 per year during the Roman Empire. The ancient literary records of work-related plumbism, however, are surprisingly sparse.