Exchange of medicinal plant information in California missions.

BACKGROUND: Missions were established in California in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to convert Native Americans to Christianity and enculturate them into a class of laborers for Californios (Spanish/Mexican settler). The concentration of large numbers of Native Americans at the Missions, along with the introduction of European diseases, led to serious disease problems. Medicinal supplies brought to California by the missionaries were limited in quantity. This situation resulted in an opportunity for the sharing of knowledge of medicinal plants between the Native Americans and the Mission priests. The purpose of this study is to examine the degree to which such sharing of knowledge took place and to understand factors that may have influenced the sharing of medicinal knowledge. The study also examines the sharing of medicinal knowledge between the Native Americans and the Californios following the demise of the California Missions. METHODS: Two methods were employed in the study: (1) a comparison of lists of medicinal plants used by various groups (e.g., Native American, Mission priests, Californios) prior to, during, and after the Mission period and (2) a close reading of diaries, reports, and books written by first-hand observers and modern authorities to find accounts of and identify factors influencing the exchange of medicinal information. RESULTS: A comparison of the lists of medicinal plants use by various groups indicated that only a small percentage of medicinal plants were shared by two or more groups. For example, none of the 265 taxa of species used by the Native Americans in pre-Mission times were imported into Spain for medicinal use and only 16 taxa were reported to have been used at the Missions. A larger sharing of information of medicinal plants took place in the post-Mission period when Native Americans were dispersed from the Missions and worked as laborers on the ranches of the Californios. CONCLUSIONS: Sharing of information concerning medicinal plants did occur during the Mission period, but the number of documented species was limited. A number of possible factors discouraged this exchange. These include (1) imbalance of power between the priests and the Native Americans, (2) suppression of indigenous knowledge and medical practices by the Mission priests, (3) language barriers, (4) reduction of availability of medicinal herbs around the Mission due to introduced agricultural practices, (5) desire to protect knowledge of medicinal herbs by Native American shaman, (6) administrative structure at the Missions which left little time for direct interaction between the priests and individual Native Americans, (7) loss of knowledge of herbal medicine by the Native Americans over time at the Missions, and (8) limited transportation opportunities for reciprocal the shipment of medicinal plants between California and Spain. Three possible factors were identified that contributed to a greater sharing of information between the Native Americans and the Californios in the post-Mission period. These were (1) more one-to-one interactions between the Californios and the Native Americans, (2) many of the Californios were mestizos whose mothers or grandmothers were Native Americans, and (3) lack of pressure on the part of the Californios to suppress Native American beliefs and medicinal practices.

[Schofield and the first spread of western medicine in Shanxi].

After the Second Opium War, the signing of the Tientsin Treaty and the Peking Treaty legitimized the missionary activities and authorized the missionary the rights to enter inland China for propagating their religious doctrines. In the late 1870s, the"The extraordinary famine of the Ding Wu year"and the subsequent epidemic provided the opportunity for missionaries to enter Shanxi. Dr. Schofield, sent by the China Inland Mission, arrived in Taiyuan in 1880, set up clinics and practised there. He died of typhus after treating a typhus patient in the summer of 1883. Schofield stayed and practised in Taiyuan for 2 years and 8 months. Later, the China Inland Mission and other missionaries donated to establish a Shanxi's first western medicine Hospital to commemorate Schofield. The medical activities of Dr. Schofield enlightened and promoted the Shanxi people's understanding of western medicine.

Discovering Healthcare Missions: Nurse on a Mission: A Journey Toward Spiritual Caring.

Embarking on a pilgrimage to Lourdes, France, to serve as a nurse, I believed I failed because my experience wasn't clinical. On a second mission trip to Lourdes, learning ways to spiritually connect with clients transformed my definition of nursing care and understanding of what gifts I can offer in service to others.

[On medical risk control in Chinese missionary hospitals in China during 1820-1860].

In the missionary hospitals founded in the nineteenth century by the missionaries in China, the sprout of consciousness of medical risk control emerged. They did their best to avoid medical accidents which might lead to anti-missionary struggle by the Chinese people, and were especially cautious to control the happening of medical accidents. First of all, the hospitals made careful screening on patients by giving priority to those patients pursuing treatment of eye diseases, and barely forced to accept patients with intractable and critical diseases. Second, before the operation, the missionary doctors usually let the patient sign an agreement of consent for surgical operation, with the patient him/herself responsible for all the consequences of operation. Generally, the patient(s) won't be hospitalized, even though the work of their nursing was generally done by the patient's relatives. All these three initiatives promoted the spread of western medicine in China and expanded a positive influence of western medicine, though it seemed to be contradictory to the principles of equality and universal love of Christianity.

Louis XIV's Ginseng: Shaping of Knowledge on an Herbal Medicine in the Late 17th and the Early 18th Century France / 의사학

This article aims to investigate the shaping of knowledge and discourse on ginseng, especially among physicians and botanists, since its introduction to France from the 17th century until the early 18th century. In France, knowledge on herbal medicine, including that of ginseng, was shaped under the influence of the modern state's policy and institution: mercantilism and the Académie royale des sciences. The knowledge of herbal medicine developed as an important part of the mercantilist policy supported systematically by the Académie. The East Asian ginseng, renowned as a panacea, was first introduced into France in the 17th century, initially in a roundabout way through transportation and English and Dutch publications of travel tales from various foreign countries. The publication activity was mainly conducted by Thévenot company with the intention to meet the needs of French mercantilism promoted by Colbert. It also implied interests on medicine in order to bolster the people's health. The Thévenot company's activity thus offered vital information on plants and herbs abroad, one of which was ginseng. Furthermore, with Louis XIV's dispatching of the Jesuit missionaries to East Asia, the Frenchmen were able to directly gather information on ginseng. These information became a basis for research of the Académie. In the Académie, founded in 1666 by Colbert, the king's physicians and botanists systematically and collectively studied on exotic plants and medical herbs including ginseng. They were also key figures of the Jardin du Roi. These institutions bore a striking contrast to the faculty of medicine at the University of Paris which has been a center of the traditional Galenic medicine. The research of the Académie on ginseng was greatly advanced, owing much to the reports and samples sent from China and Canada by Jartoux, Sarrazin, and Lapitau. From the early 18th century, the conservative attitude of the University of Paris, which was a stronghold of conservative Galenic Medicine, began to change with its new interest on foreign medicine herbs, including Chinese medicine. In our opinion, this change is exemplified in a paper, that is to say in a thése de licence or thése quolibétique in French, submitted to the Faculty of Medicine in 1736 by Folliot de Saint-Vast under the direction of Jacques-François Vendermonde. During this period, the knowledge of Chinese Materia Medica was introduced, despite of textual adaptation and interpolation, through the "translation" of Chinese medicale books such as Bencao Gangmu. The Chinese medical books were presented to the French academic public by doctors and Jesuit missionaries active in China. The assessment of the ginseng was generally favorable yet, although physicians and doctors began to take more caution on considering it as a panacea.

[Foreign firms and dissemination of western medicine in China before the Opium War].

From the beginning of the 19th century to the Opium War, by taking the advantages of free entering and departing China, and to protect themselves, the foreign firms introduced vaccination technique into China. This is the beginning of the introduction of western medicine to China. After 1807, following the arrival of protestant missionaries, foreign firms became the stronghold for the missionaries to conceal their missionary status so as to propagate the principles of Christianity. With the aid of the business firms employee's legal identity, the missionaries started their activities of delivering western medicines and practices. Later, the business firms gained commercial profits through the subsidizing medical services and infiltration. Although western medicine objectively improved the medical conditions in China and promoted the modernization of Chinese health career, but it cast an important aspect of western aggression against China at the same time.

Cooperation and Conflict: Faction Problem of Western Medicine Group in Modern China / 의사학

After the defeat of the Opium War and the Sino-Japanese War, China's intellectuals realized necessity of modernization (Westernization) to survive in the imperial order of the survival of the fittest. In particular, it was urgent to accept Western medicine and train the doctors who learned Western medicine to change the sick and weary Chinese to be robust. Thus, new occupations of the Western Medicine Group (xiyi, doctors who learned Western medicine) emerged in China. As with the first profession, the new Western Medicine Group tried to define standards of Western medicine and medical profession; however, it was difficult in the absence of the strong central government. In addition, they formed a faction by the country where they studied or the language they learned. The factions included the Britain - America faction(yingmeipai) consisting of the Britain - America studied doctors or graduates from Protestant missions based medical schools, and the Germany - Japan faction(deripai), graduates from medical schools by Japanese or German government and the Chinese government. In 1915, they founded the National Medical Association of China mainly consisting of the Britain - America faction and the National Medical and Pharmaceutical Association of China led by the Germany – Japan faction. Initially, exchanges were active so most of eminent doctors belonged the two associations at the same time. They had a consciousness of a common occupation group as a doctor who had learned Western medicine. Thus, they actively cooperated to keep their profits against Chinese medicine and enjoy their reputation. Their cooperation emitted light particularly in translation of medical terms and unified works. Thanks to cooperation, the two associations selected medical terminologies by properly using the cases of the West and Japan. Additionally, medical schools of the Britain - America faction and the Germany – Japan faction produced various levels of the Western Medicine Group doctors for China to timely respond to the rapidly increased demand. However, a conflict over the promotion of hygiene administration and the unification, organization of medical education did not end. This conflict was deepening as the Nanjing nationalist government promoted sanitary administration. It was the Britain - America faction who seized a chance of victory. It was because figures from the Britain - America faction held important positions in the hygiene department. Of course, some related to the National Medical and Pharmaceutical Association of China were also involved in the hygiene department; however, most took charge of simple technical tasks, not having a significant impact on hygiene administration. To solve the problem of factions of the Western Medicine Group, the Britain - America faction or the Germany - Japan faction had to arrange the education system with a strong power, or to organize a new association of two factions mixed, as in Chinese faction(zhonghuapai). But an effort of the Britain - America faction to unify the systems of medical schools did not reach the Germany - Japan faction's medical schools. Additionally, from 1928, executives of the two Chinese medical associations discussed their merger; however they could not agree because of practitioners'interests involved. Substantially, a conflict between factions of the Western Medicine Group continued even until the mid-1930s. This implies that the then Chinese government had a lack of capacity of uniting and organizing the medical community.

Nursing Missionary Elizabeth J. Shepping's Education and Holistic Care for Koreans

PURPOSE: This study was to present education and holistic care of Elizabeth J. Shepping (1880~1934), a nursing missionary and a founder of the Chosun Nursing Association who visited Korea during the Japanese colonial period. METHODS: Primary and secondary sources were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: This study provides important implications regarding Shepping's holistic nursing as follows: First, she came to Korea after studying nursing and bibliology and being trained for nursing missionary works. Second, she cared for many Koreans, especially Korean women, to protect them from poverty, oppression, ignorance, and illnesses. Third, she continued to spread holistic care in hospitals and other local communities. She trained nurses, developed nursing education, and produced a large number of domestic nursing leaders by establishing women's Bible school. Fourth, she founded the Chosun Nursing Association, serving as its first president for 10 years and applied to join the International Council of Nurses (ICN). CONCLUSION: Finally, suggestions were provided for future research, and it will be necessary to study thoroughly nursing achievements by nurses from other countries who practiced their nursing activities in Korea, and such studies are expected to lead to analysis of nursing missionaries' experiences.

Forming, transfer and globalization of medical-pharmaceutical knowledge in South East Asian missions (17th to 18th c.) - historical dimensions and modern perspectives.

From the 17th to the 18th centuries, missionaries in Southeast Asia dedicated themselves to providing and establishing a professional medical-pharmaceutical supply for the local population and therefore explored the genuine Materia medica for easily available and affordable remedies, especially medicinal plants. In characteristic medical-pharmaceutical compendia, which can be classified as missionary pharmacopoeias, they laid down their knowledge to advise others and to guarantee a professional health care. As their knowledge often resulted from an exchange with indigenous communities, these compendia provide essential information about traditional plant uses of Southeast Asian people. Individual missionaries such as the Jesuit Georg Joseph Kamel (1661-1706) not only strove to explore medicinal plants but performed botanical studies and even composed comprehensive herbals. The Jesuit missionaries in particular played roles in both the order's own global network of transfer of medicinal drugs and knowledge about the application, and within the contemporary local and European scientific networks which included, for example, the famous Royal Society of London. The results of their studies were distributed all over the world, were introduced into the practical Materia medica of other regions, and contributed significantly to the academization of knowledge. In our article we will explain the different intentions and methods of exploring, the resulting works and the consequences for the forming of the pharmaceutical and scientific knowledge. Finally, we will show the options which the works of the missionaries can offer for the saving of traditional ethnopharmacological knowledge and for the development of modern phytotherapeutics and pharmaceutical supply. The publication is based on a comprehensive study on the phenomenon of missionary pharmacy which has been published as a book in 2011 (Anagnostou, 2011a) and shows now the potential of historical medical-pharmaceutical works written in the Asian missions of the 17th to 18th century and influenced by ethnopharmaceutical knowledge and the relevance of historical studies for modern investigation in phytotherapy.

Gestão participativa no distrito sanitário especial indígena Cuiabá: uma análise de sua viabilidade política / Participatory management in the Special Indigenous Sanitary District Cuiabá an analysis of its political viability

Este trabalho se inscreve no campo da saúde pública em sua perspectiva interdisciplinar, pois mobiliza conhecimentos oriundos da epidemiologia, do planejamento e das ciências humanas e sociais. Nosso objetivo central foi analisar a viabilidade política do planejamento participativo na Terra Indígena Tirecatinga, DSEI Cuiabá, Estado de Mato Grosso, Brasil. A fundamentação teórica utilizada foi a Teoria do Jogo Social de Carlos Matus que visita e amplia duas outras teorias formuladas pelo autor: a Teoria das Situações e a Teoria da Produção Social. A estratégia metodológica escolhida foi o Estudo de Caso tendo em vista que a formulação de um plano local por meio do planejamento estratégico situacional tratou-se de um caso não significando que o processo e os resultados obtidos poderão ser generalizados para as demais comunidades indígenas do território nacional. Os depoimentos foram submetidos à Análise do Discurso segundo hipóteses de Dominique Mainguenau. Esperamos que o exercício do planejamento em território indígena amplie a compreensão da situação de saúde dos índios que vivem na Terra Indígena Tirecatinga, território adstrito ao DSEI Cuiabá; estenda a compreensão sobre as lógicas de ação que permeiam as práticas dos sujeitos nos espaços de participação social; que o planejamento seja um instrumento de reflexão e mudança para a organização fornecendo subsídios para a institucionalização do mesmo tendo em vista as necessidades dos sujeitos e, sobretudo, promova a

This work falls within the field of public health from an interdisciplinary perspective as it mobilizes knowledge from epidemiology, planning and human and social sciences. Our main objective was to analyze the political viability of participatory planning within Tirecatinga Indigenous Territory, DSEI Cuiaba, Mato Grosso, Brazil. The theoretical framework used was the Theory of Social Game by Carlos Matus, created by visiting and extending two other theories formulated by the same author: the Theory of Situations and the Theory of Social Production. The selected methodological strategy was a case study with a view to formulate a local level situational strategic planning used to treat a case. Therefore the process and the results cannot be generalised to other indigenous communities within the national territory. All reports were submitted to Discourse Analysis according to Dominique Mainguenaus hypothesis. We hope that the exercise of planning within indigenous territories can expand the understanding of the health status of Indians living within Tirecatinga Indigenous Territorry, a territory attached to the DSEI Cuiabá; extend the understanding of the logic of action that permeates the practices of the subjects in the spaces of social participation; that planning can be used as a reflection tool and promote changes to the organization providing support for the institutionalization from a perspective which recognizes the needs of individuals and, above all, promote

Women, religion, and maternal health care in Ghana, 1945-2000.

This article documents the historical factors that led to shifts in mission work toward a greater emphasis on community health for the poor and most vulnerable of society in sub-Saharan Africa after 1945. Using the example of the Medical Mission Sisters from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and their work in Ghana, we challenge the conventional narrative of medical missions as agents of imperialism. We assert that missions-particularly those run by Catholic sister physicians, nurses, and midwives-have changed over time and that those changes have been beneficial to the expansion of community health, particularly in the area of improvement of maternal care.

From the trunk of a Volkswagen beetle: a mobile nursing clinic in Appalachia.

Access to health care has been a factor for patients living in isolated mountain regions. The Frontier Nursing service was a pioneer in reaching those patients living in the most remote regions of Appalachia. Geography, demographics, and culture present obstacles for rural residents and health care providers. This article identifies and describes the roles nurses and nurse practitioners played in caring for Appalachian families through a roving Health Wagon in the 1980s and 1990s in Southwest Virginia. Family nurse practitioner Sister Bernadette Kenny was instrumental in bringing care on wheels to rural residents living in the Appalachian mountainous region of southwest Virginia.

Zhuzhiqunzheng, the Jesuit translation of Western medicine and its influence on Korean and Chinese intellectuals / 의사학

The Jesuits were great transmitters of Western science to East Asia in the 17th and 18th century. In 1636, a German Jesuit missionary Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666) published a book titled Zhuzhiqunzheng (Hundreds of Signs Testifying Divine Providence). The book was not Adam Schall's own writing, but it was the Chinese translation of De providentia numinis (1613) of Leonardus Lessius (1554-1623) who was also a Jesuit scholar. The book was a religious work which particularly aimed at converting the pagans to the Christianity by presenting them with hundreds of signs testifying the divine providence. One group of the signs is those manifested in the human body. The bodily signs in question include anatomical structures and physiological processes. It gives a brief survey of bodily structures with bones and muscles. The translator had much difficulties in explaining muscles for there was no corresponding concept in Chinese medicine. The theory of human physiology was a simplified version of medieval Galenism. Three kinds of pneuma were translated into three kinds of Qi respectively. 'Natural pneuma' was translated into 'Qi of the body nature', 'vital pneuma' into 'Qi of life and nourishing', 'psychic pneuma' into 'Qi of movement and consciousness'. The book of Schall von Bell and other books on Western science written in Chinese were also imported to Korea during the 17th and 18th century. Unlike China, Korea was very hostile to Christianity and no Jesuit could enter Korea. Only the books on Western science could be imported. The books, which were called Books on Western Learning, were circulated and read among the progressive Confucian literati. However, Western medicine thus introduced had little influence on the traditional medicine of East Asia. However, some intellectuals paid attention to the physiological theory, in particular the theory of brain centrism, which fueled a philosophical debate among Korean intellectuals of the time.

Professor McLaren (2). His Theories of Psychiatry / 신경정신의학

Professor Dr. Charles I. McLaren (1882-1957) of the Department of Psychiatry, Severance Union School of Medicine in Seoul, Korea had introduced not only Christianity but medicine and psychiatry of his time with his own theories to Korea while he had served as a Christian missionary from Australia to Korea from 1911 to 1941. Based on his view of Christianity and knowledge of modern science and medicine, he tried to explore the etiology, symptoms, treatment and spiritual meaning of mental disorders including general paresis, dementia praecox, mania, melancholia, paranoia, neurasthnenia, hysteria, hypochondriasis, and even psychophysiological disorder. Though he accepted that mental disorders are related to disrupted functions of brain or neurons, he believed that fundamental causes of insanity is spiritual. Regarding etiology, he suggested that people's choice not to follow God's logos by their free-will and consequent disharmony with nature or human society or failure of self to adapt to reality causes mental disorders. And he explained psychotic phenomena in view of Christian spirituality. In addition, he argued "psychic" (psychological or spiritual) conflict, sensitivity and guilt feeling as a possible etiology of psycho-neurosis including neurasthenia, hysteria and hypochondria. Conflict includes not only sexual conflicts but social conflicts related to family, job, money, or guilt feeling. He also emphasized the meaning and purpose of life in relation to development of mental illness. Remarkably, he introduced idea of "spill-over" to explain how emotional problems influence autonomic dysfunction resulting in psycho- physiological symptoms. He can be recognized as a psychiatrist who integrated bio-medical descriptive psychiatry with psycho-social approach, dynamic psychotherapy and even spiritual approach as a fundamental one. Though many scientific criticism can be given to his theories of psychaitry, he is deserved to be rediscovered and recognized as a pioneer who had shown another apprach to mental disorders to present psychiatrists who are lost in confusion with so many uncertainties in regard to understanding and treating mental disorders.

Jeong Jongmyung, a Korean feminist and midwife of Japanese Colonial Period / 의사학

Jeong Jongmyung (1896-?) was born in Seoul and could have 4 years of formal education in a missionary girls' school. She learned Chinese writing, English, Korean, Japanese, History, Geography, and Science there, which was very rare and high education for Korean girls. But she had to quit it for poverty, and married when she was 17. Her marriage was unhappy and her husband died after 3 years. Jeong entered Severance Hospital Training School for Nurses in 1917 to have economic independence. During her training for 3 years, she studied western science and medicine and learned how to cooperate with other working girls. In 1919, Korean launched Samil Independence Movement. Jeong helped other independence activists as a nursing student and her mother had to be in prison for 3 years. After graduation, she entered the Midwifery School of General Hospital of Government General of Korea to have better position than nurse. As soon as she got midwifery license, she opened her own clinic which gave her social respect income, because there were only 25 Korean midwives in Korea. In 1922 Jeong established and became the leader of the Support Group for Working Girl Students. She continuously established and leaded social movement organizations, in 1924, the Korean Association of Nurses and the Women Comrades Society, in 1926 Jeongwoohoe, in 1927 Geunwoohoe and Shinganghoi. From 1923 Jeong got more fame by public speeches. The main contents of them were the women's problem in Korea. As the first Korean woman communist, she analyzed the Korean society and women's problem as a communist and insisted that the women's liberation movement should be gained in class struggle in cooperation with the proletariat. She was very active and aggressive in public lecture, and in everyday lives, Jeong was so warm hearted and eager to help other activists with her energy and income, so others called her their "sister, housemaid, lover, and mother". The Japanese rulers oppressed her by stopping or forbidding her lectures. In 1931 Jeong was prosecuted for the trial of reconstruction of communist party in Korea. She was sentenced to be guilty and had to be in prison until 1935. Even in prison, she helped other prisoners in labor and continued her job as a midwife after discharge. Jeong could not be active as before because of the worse ruling policy than before, but after the liberation in 1945 she went to North Korea and participated in the women's movement.

Hong Seok-hoo's Translation of "New Edition of Physiology Textbook"(1906) and its Meanings / 의사학

Hong Seok-hoo, who took charge of Jejungwon, was successful in translating Jiro Tsuboi's book titled "Sinpyeonsaengnigyogwaseo (1897)" and publishing it with a title of "New Edition of Physiology Textbook" in 1906. Jiro Tsuboi, the original author of that book, was a doctor having majored in Hygienics in Germany and was also known to have done pioneering work in Hygienics and Occupational and Environmental Medicine in Japan. At that time, he wrote that book for the purpose of teaching his students at Ordinary Middle School and Normal School. Therefore, it was not intended as a Physiology textbook for medical students, but an introductory book explaining Physiology with a wide range of subjects including hygienic matters in a broader sense. Hong Seok-hoo made an almost complete translation of the "New Edition of Physiology Textbook." While editing the book, however, he changed some of the most Japanese-style contents to meet the Korean conditions then, and made up for some insufficient contents with reference to the original author's other books. Although it was not included in an original version of that book, he also compiled a physiology dictionary in order to help Korean readers acquire medical terms in a more systematic way. Just like other textbooks of Jejungwon, the "New Edition of Physiology Textbook" was also put into Korean only. Hong Seok-hoo accepted Japanese-style medical terms, but also changed some of them or coined new words, considering the Korean circumstances then. He seemed to do so in an effort to introduce Western medicine in a more independent way while overcoming his limitations of translation. In particular, this book criticized that a long-term use of cosmetics might cause a serious lead poisoning from a Christian viewpoint, saying that a God-created human body should be kept intact as it is. In addition, in the course of reediting premodern books, the term "Lord" was changed into "God," which is considered a kind of fusion between traditional values and missionary medicine. While translating books, Jejungwon could put such fusion into practice because it was a hospital established under the banner of the propagation of Christianity. Besides the "New Edition of Physiology Textbook," at least five physiology textbooks were also translated into Korean in the last years of Daehan Empire for the purpose of teaching students modern subjects like Physiology, Health and Hygienics in educational institutions including Boseong School, Hwimun School and Soongsil School. On the other hand, the "New Edition of Physiology Textbook" was first translated at the end of Daehan Empire in order to foster more professional doctors in medical schools compared to those schools. In this respect, by translating the "New Edition of Physiology Textbook," Jejungwon can be considered as playing a pioneering role in translating Physiology textbooks in the late Daehan Empire.

Faith community/parish nursing: what's in a name?

In the Christian faith tradition, using "Parish Nurse" to describe the form of nursing based in a Christian congregation is both historic and descriptive of the type of nursing specialty practice and ministry that reaches within the Church and out into the wider community. Reflecting on the work of Granger Westberg, the Scope and Standards of Practice for this specialty, and examining the etiology of the word "parish," the authors argue that retaining the language "Parish Nurse"promotes a broader understanding of the purpose of this specialty practice, not only as inreach or outreach on behalf of a church or health system, but as a focused and integrated "parish" ministry.

Professor Charles I. McLaren, MD (1) : His Life and Medical Philosophy / 신경정신의학

Professor Charles I. McLaren (1882-1957) was an Australian Christian missionary and a professor of psychiatry in Korea. As the first psychiatrist from a Western country, he accomplished tremendous achievements in clinical, teaching and writing activities as well as in his missionary work. He graduated from the University of Melbourne in 1906 and, after residency training under Professor Dr. Sir Richard Stawell at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, he and his wife came to Korea in 1911. He practised medicine at Margaret Whitecross Paton Memorial Hospital in Chinju, Korea and later was appointed as a professor of psychiatry at the Severance Union Medical School in Seoul, Korea. He left Korea for a while to participate in WWII as a military doctor and he also once traveled to Vienna to learn new skills, including fever therapy and psychoanalysis. Because of his love for the Korean people, Dr. McLaren not only introduced into Korean society modern Western psychiatry and a humanitarian approach to patients with mental disorders, but he also practised medicine according to his own unique medical philosophy drawn from Christian spirituality and he educated Korean native students in psychiatry and Christianity. He and his wife also made efforts to improve old customs in Korean society. Because he argued against Japan's enforcement of emperor-worship, he had to resign from the Severance Medical College in 1939, and he returned to Chinju. Immediately after the bombing of Pearl Harbour, he was arrested, imprisoned, interned, and subequently expelled to Australia in 1942. In Melbourne, received wide press coverage and great controversy. He lectured widely and contributed to various professional and other publications, covering not only subjects in Christianity and medicine/psychiatry, but also his opinions about the war and Japan, communism and the White Australia policy. As a Christian me-dical doctor and scientist, he was interested in the "nature of man", the relationship or interaction between body (brain and/or material) and mind/spirituality, the origin of human consciousness in relation to time-space energy, the healing of disease, and the etiology of mental illness and spiritual treatment. He was passionate in his stated belief that God's Word applied to the whole spec-trum of human relationships, from personal to international, as well as to the natural world. Dr. McLaren kept his conservative Christian beliefs, but he respected traditional Asian philosophies. His thoughts and experiences were publically expressed through lectures, journals and books, not only in Korea but also in China and Australia. He was a man of compassion, courage and ceaseless intellectual activity, a pioneer of psychiatry and a lifelong explorer of the Bible. Korean psych-iatrists, who may feel confused by the many complicated new medical theories and advanced technologies, still find Dr. McLaren's simple and clear teachings on science, medicine, and human nature and his practice of caring for mental patients with a compassionate, humanitarian and Christian attitude a challenging example to emulate.

Research on the Hospital Construction and Structure in Daehan Empire and Colonial Modern Period / 의사학

It was the late Chosun Dynasty and Daehan Empire era that Western Medicine has firstly been introduced to Korea, previously operating on a basis of Korean traditional medicine. Western Medicine has been introduced by American missionary and Japanese Imperialism. An introduction of Western Medicine made it feasible to proceed new type medical care including operation, leading to require a new form of medical facilities. In the beginning, new facilities were constructed by Japanese Imperialism. Other hand many of facilities including Severance Hospital were established by missionaries. First of all, Daehan Empire established and managed a modern type of medical facility named "Jejoongwon" in 1885 as a government institution hospital. The Red Cross Hospital built in 1889. Afterwards, Jejoongwon and the Red Cross Hospital were taken over to missionary hospital and Japanese Imperialism, respectively. Japanese Imperialists firstly have protected their nationals residing in Chosun but have proceeded care a few Chosun people to exploit medical treatment as a mean to advertise superiority of the Empire of Japan. The facility that has firstly been established and managed was Jeseang Hospital in Busan in 1877, leading to establish in Wonju, Wonsan, and Mokpo. Afterwards, Japan has organized "Donginhoi" as a civil invasion organization, leading for "Donginhoi" to established "Dongin Hospital" in Pyeongyang, Daegu, and Seoul. Since 1909, governmental leading medical facility named Jahye Hospital was established according to an imperial order, leading to establish 32 hospitals all over the nation. American missionaries have established and managed 28 hospitals started from Severance Hospital built in 1904. However, Chosun doctors started to having educated and opening up their own hospital since 1920, leading for many of medical facilities to be established, but most of them have taken different roles followed by 6.25 War and economic development period. However, some of them are currently under protection as cultural assets, and some of them are now preserved. Buildings have originally been structured of wood as a single story in the beginning, but bricks started to be steadily used, leading to build two story building. Each of clinic department started to be separated since 1920, establishing operation room and treatment room. Now, a change of perception as to buildings that need to be preserved and an attention from government and doctors are required since modern medical facilities keep disappearing.