Rural Counties With Majority Black Or Indigenous Populations Suffer The Highest Rates Of Premature Death In The US.

Despite well-documented health disparities by rurality and race/ethnicity, research investigating racial/ethnic health differences among US rural residents is limited. We used county-level data to measure and compare premature death rates in rural counties by each county's majority racial/ethnic group. Premature death rates were significantly higher in rural counties with a majority of non-Hispanic black or American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) residents than in rural counties with a majority of non-Hispanic white residents. After we adjusted for community-level covariates, differences in premature death remained significant in counties with a majority of AI/AN residents but not those with a majority of non-Hispanic black residents. This study highlights the particular vulnerability of non-Hispanic black and AI/AN rural communities to high rates of premature mortality. Policies to improve rural health should focus on these racially diverse communities, addressing economic vitality and current and historical political context to mitigate health inequities and the harmful health effects of neglecting social determinants of health.

Preventable deaths in childhood, according to actions of the Unified Health System, Brazil. / Mortes evitáveis na infância, segundo ações do Sistema Único de Saúde, Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the mortality trend of children under five years of age living in Brazil and regions, using the "Brazilian List of Preventable Causes of Death." METHOD: Ecological time-series study of mortality rate due to preventable and non-preventable causes, with corrections for ill-defined causes and underreporting of deaths from 2000 to 2013. RESULTS: In Brazil, preventable death rates (5.1% per year) had a higher decrease compared with non-preventable ones (2.5% per year). Preventable causes associated with proper care during pregnancy had the highest concentration of deaths in 2013 (12,267) and the second lowest average percentage reduction in the year (2.1%) and for the period (24.4%). The South and Southeast regions had the lowest mortality rates in childhood. However, the Northeast region had the highest decrease in reducible child mortality (6.1% per year) and the Midwest, the lowest (3.5% per year). CONCLUSION: The decrease in childhood mortality rates was expected in the last decade, suggesting the progress in the response of health systems, in addition to improvements in health conditions and social determinants. Special attention should be given to pregnancy-related causes, i.e., expand the quality of prenatal care, in particular, due to fetal and newborn deaths resulted from maternal conditions, which increased significantly in the period (8,3% per year).

OBJETIVO: Analisar a tendência da mortalidade de crianças menores de cinco anos, residentes no Brasil e regiões, utilizando a "Lista Brasileira de Causas de Mortes Evitáveis". MÉTODO: Estudo ecológico de séries temporais da taxa de mortalidade por causas evitáveis e não evitáveis, com correções para as causas mal definidas e para o sub-registro de óbitos informados, no período de 2000 a 2013. RESULTADOS: No Brasil, houve maior declínio da taxa de mortalidade por causas evitáveis (5,1% ao ano), comparadas com as causas não evitáveis (2,5% ao ano). As causas evitáveis por adequada atenção à gestação constituíram a maior concentração de óbitos em 2013 (12.267) e tiveram a segunda menor redução percentual média anual (2,1%) e do período (24,4%). As menores taxas de mortalidade na infância foram evidenciadas nas regiões Sul e Sudeste. Observa-se, no entanto, que a Região Nordeste apresentou o maior declínio da mortalidade infantil reduzível (6,1% ao ano) e o Centro-Oeste, o menor (3,5% ao ano). CONCLUSÃO: O declínio da taxa de mortalidade na infância já era esperado nessa última década, levando a acreditar na evolução da resposta dos sistemas de saúde, além de nas melhorias nas condições de saúde e determinantes sociais. Atenção especial deve ser oferecida às causas relacionadas à gestação, ou seja, avançar na qualidade do pré-natal, em particular, em razão da ocorrência de mortes no feto e no recém-nascido oriundas de afecções maternas que apresentaram importante acréscimo no período (8,3% ao ano).

Deaths preventable by actions of the Unified Health System in the population of the Brazilian Southeast Region. / Mortes evitáveis por ações do Sistema Único de Saúde na população da Região Sudeste do Brasil.

This paper aims to analyze the mortality trend in the population aged 5-69 years residing in the Southeast and Federal Units (UF), using the "Brazilian List of Preventable Deaths Causes". An ecological study on time series of the standardized mortality rate from preventable and non-preventable causes, with adjustments for ill-defined causes and underreporting of notified deaths, from 2000 to 2013. A declining mortality rate from preventable (2.4% per year) and non-preventable causes (1.5% per year) was found in the population aged 5-69 years living in the Southeast in the period 2000-2013. A drop in all groups of preventable deaths causes and stability in the maternal death causes was observed. Deaths from noncommunicable diseases fell 2.7% annually and were higher in the age group of 60-69 years in 2013 (211.8/100,000 inhabitants for deaths from ischemic heart disease, 146.3/100,000 inhabitants for cerebrovascular diseases and 96.5/100,000 inhabitants for diabetes). The highest preventable death rates are from chronic noncommunicable diseases and external causes, both of which are sensitive to health promotion and intersectoral interventions, which reinforces the need for integrated health policies.

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a tendência da mortalidade na população de 5 a 69 anos, residente na região Sudeste e Unidades Federadas (UF), utilizando-se a "Lista Brasileira de Causas de Mortes Evitáveis". Estudo ecológico de séries temporais da taxa de mortalidade padronizada por causas evitáveis e não evitáveis, com correções para as causas mal definidas e o sub-registro de óbitos informados, no período de 2000 a 2013. Evidenciou-se o declínio da taxa de mortalidade na população de 5 a 69 anos residente na região Sudeste por causas evitáveis (2,4% ao ano) e não evitáveis (1,5% ao ano) no período 2000-2013. Houve queda em todos os grupos de causas de mortes evitáveis e estabilidade nas causas de morte materna. As mortes por doenças não transmissíveis reduziram 2,7% ao ano e foram mais elevadas na faixa etária de 60 a 69 anos em 2013 (211,8/100.000 hab. para as mortes por doenças isquêmicas do coração; 146,3/100.000 hab. para as doenças cerebrovasculares; e 96,5/100.000 hab. para diabetes). As taxas de mortes evitáveis mais elevadas são por doenças crônicas não transmissíveis e causas externas, ambas sensíveis às intervenções de promoção da saúde e intersetoriais, o que reforça a necessidade de políticas de saúde integradas.

Mortes evitáveis por ações do Sistema Único de Saúde na população da Região Sudeste do Brasil / Deaths preventable by actions of the Unified Health System in the population of the Brazilian Southeast Region

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a tendência da mortalidade na população de 5 a 69 anos, residente na região Sudeste e Unidades Federadas (UF), utilizando-se a "Lista Brasileira de Causas de Mortes Evitáveis". Estudo ecológico de séries temporais da taxa de mortalidade padronizada por causas evitáveis e não evitáveis, com correções para as causas mal definidas e o sub-registro de óbitos informados, no período de 2000 a 2013. Evidenciou-se o declínio da taxa de mortalidade na população de 5 a 69 anos residente na região Sudeste por causas evitáveis (2,4% ao ano) e não evitáveis (1,5% ao ano) no período 2000-2013. Houve queda em todos os grupos de causas de mortes evitáveis e estabilidade nas causas de morte materna. As mortes por doenças não transmissíveis reduziram 2,7% ao ano e foram mais elevadas na faixa etária de 60 a 69 anos em 2013 (211,8/100.000 hab. para as mortes por doenças isquêmicas do coração; 146,3/100.000 hab. para as doenças cerebrovasculares; e 96,5/100.000 hab. para diabetes). As taxas de mortes evitáveis mais elevadas são por doenças crônicas não transmissíveis e causas externas, ambas sensíveis às intervenções de promoção da saúde e intersetoriais, o que reforça a necessidade de políticas de saúde integradas.

Abstract This paper aims to analyze the mortality trend in the population aged 5-69 years residing in the Southeast and Federal Units (UF), using the "Brazilian List of Preventable Deaths Causes". An ecological study on time series of the standardized mortality rate from preventable and non-preventable causes, with adjustments for ill-defined causes and underreporting of notified deaths, from 2000 to 2013. A declining mortality rate from preventable (2.4% per year) and non-preventable causes (1.5% per year) was found in the population aged 5-69 years living in the Southeast in the period 2000-2013. A drop in all groups of preventable deaths causes and stability in the maternal death causes was observed. Deaths from noncommunicable diseases fell 2.7% annually and were higher in the age group of 60-69 years in 2013 (211.8/100,000 inhabitants for deaths from ischemic heart disease, 146.3/100,000 inhabitants for cerebrovascular diseases and 96.5/100,000 inhabitants for diabetes). The highest preventable death rates are from chronic noncommunicable diseases and external causes, both of which are sensitive to health promotion and intersectoral interventions, which reinforces the need for integrated health policies.

Mortes evitáveis na infância, segundo ações do Sistema Único de Saúde, Brasil / Preventable deaths in childhood, according to actions of the Unified Health System, Brazil

RESUMO: Objetivo: Analisar a tendência da mortalidade de crianças menores de cinco anos, residentes no Brasil e regiões, utilizando a "Lista Brasileira de Causas de Mortes Evitáveis". Método: Estudo ecológico de séries temporais da taxa de mortalidade por causas evitáveis e não evitáveis, com correções para as causas mal definidas e para o sub-registro de óbitos informados, no período de 2000 a 2013. Resultados: No Brasil, houve maior declínio da taxa de mortalidade por causas evitáveis (5,1% ao ano), comparadas com as causas não evitáveis (2,5% ao ano). As causas evitáveis por adequada atenção à gestação constituíram a maior concentração de óbitos em 2013 (12.267) e tiveram a segunda menor redução percentual média anual (2,1%) e do período (24,4%). As menores taxas de mortalidade na infância foram evidenciadas nas regiões Sul e Sudeste. Observa-se, no entanto, que a Região Nordeste apresentou o maior declínio da mortalidade infantil reduzível (6,1% ao ano) e o Centro-Oeste, o menor (3,5% ao ano). Conclusão: O declínio da taxa de mortalidade na infância já era esperado nessa última década, levando a acreditar na evolução da resposta dos sistemas de saúde, além de nas melhorias nas condições de saúde e determinantes sociais. Atenção especial deve ser oferecida às causas relacionadas à gestação, ou seja, avançar na qualidade do pré-natal, em particular, em razão da ocorrência de mortes no feto e no recém-nascido oriundas de afecções maternas que apresentaram importante acréscimo no período (8,3% ao ano).

ABSTRACT: Objective: To analyze the mortality trend of children under five years of age living in Brazil and regions, using the "Brazilian List of Preventable Causes of Death." Method: Ecological time-series study of mortality rate due to preventable and non-preventable causes, with corrections for ill-defined causes and underreporting of deaths from 2000 to 2013. Results: In Brazil, preventable death rates (5.1% per year) had a higher decrease compared with non-preventable ones (2.5% per year). Preventable causes associated with proper care during pregnancy had the highest concentration of deaths in 2013 (12,267) and the second lowest average percentage reduction in the year (2.1%) and for the period (24.4%). The South and Southeast regions had the lowest mortality rates in childhood. However, the Northeast region had the highest decrease in reducible child mortality (6.1% per year) and the Midwest, the lowest (3.5% per year). Conclusion: The decrease in childhood mortality rates was expected in the last decade, suggesting the progress in the response of health systems, in addition to improvements in health conditions and social determinants. Special attention should be given to pregnancy-related causes, i.e., expand the quality of prenatal care, in particular, due to fetal and newborn deaths resulted from maternal conditions, which increased significantly in the period (8,3% per year).

Attending to physical health in mental health services in Australia: a qualitative study of service users' experiences and expectations.

Evidence is unequivocal: the premature death of people with severe mental health problems is attributable primarily to cardiovascular disease, and healthcare provided is often suboptimal. With the overarching aim of improving outcomes, policies and guidelines oblige mental health services and psychiatrists to monitor cardio-metabolic health of patients and intervene as appropriate. Practice is highly variable; however, with ongoing debate about resourcing and responsibilities dominated by clinicians who have identified disinterest among patients as influencing practice. Seeking to balance discussion, we posed the question 'what do patients experience and expect of mental health services in relation to their physical health?' To answer it, we interviewed a convenience sample of 40 service users recruited from a mental health service in Australia, early in 2015. Data were analysed using the framework approach. With few regarding themselves as healthy, participants were commonly concerned about side effects of medication, weight and fitness but rarely mentioned tobacco smoking. Participants' accounts reinforce extensive research demonstrating variability in attention to physical health in mental health services. Reports by some participants of comprehensive care are encouraging, but widespread uncertainty about reasons for various assessments and denial of requests for management of medication side effects, including weight gain, gives cause for concern. Although participants in this study wanted to improve their health and health-related quality of life, they acknowledged that their motivation and ability to do so fluctuated with mental health. They expected clinicians to work proactively, especially when symptoms compromised capacity for self-care, and mental health services to provide or enable access to health-promoting interventions. Attention should be given, as a matter of priority, to creating conditions (culture and infrastructure) needed to support sustained attention to physical health within services and, importantly, to full engagement of service users in management of their physical health.

[AIDS-related early mortality in Mexico between 2008 and 2012]. / Mortalidad temprana por sida en México durante el periodo 2008-2012.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the distribution of AIDS-related mortality according to the time of occurrence since entry to the System for the Administration, Logistics and Surveillance of Antiretrovirals (SALVAR, in Spanish), among users of Ministry of Health facilities in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Descriptive analysis of AIDS mortality and the related clinical and demographic profile of 41847 patients registered in SALVAR. RESULTS: 3195 patients (8.1%) died within the study period, 59% of these deaths occurred within six months after treatment initiation. Among those patients, 87.3% were diagnosed late, given their CD4 levels (CD4cel<200 cel/ml³). CONCLUSION: Our results underscore the need to strengthen programs aimed to increase opportune HIV diagnosis and linkage to care, as a key component of universal access policy to antiretroviral treatment in Mexico.

Methods for the estimation of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence cost-effectiveness threshold.

BACKGROUND: Cost-effectiveness analysis involves the comparison of the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of a new technology, which is more costly than existing alternatives, with the cost-effectiveness threshold. This indicates whether or not the health expected to be gained from its use exceeds the health expected to be lost elsewhere as other health-care activities are displaced. The threshold therefore represents the additional cost that has to be imposed on the system to forgo 1 quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) of health through displacement. There are no empirical estimates of the cost-effectiveness threshold used by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. OBJECTIVES: (1) To provide a conceptual framework to define the cost-effectiveness threshold and to provide the basis for its empirical estimation. (2) Using programme budgeting data for the English NHS, to estimate the relationship between changes in overall NHS expenditure and changes in mortality. (3) To extend this mortality measure of the health effects of a change in expenditure to life-years and to QALYs by estimating the quality-of-life (QoL) associated with effects on years of life and the additional direct impact on QoL itself. (4) To present the best estimate of the cost-effectiveness threshold for policy purposes. METHODS: Earlier econometric analysis estimated the relationship between differences in primary care trust (PCT) spending, across programme budget categories (PBCs), and associated disease-specific mortality. This research is extended in several ways including estimating the impact of marginal increases or decreases in overall NHS expenditure on spending in each of the 23 PBCs. Further stages of work link the econometrics to broader health effects in terms of QALYs. RESULTS: The most relevant 'central' threshold is estimated to be £12,936 per QALY (2008 expenditure, 2008-10 mortality). Uncertainty analysis indicates that the probability that the threshold is < £20,000 per QALY is 0.89 and the probability that it is < £30,000 per QALY is 0.97. Additional 'structural' uncertainty suggests, on balance, that the central or best estimate is, if anything, likely to be an overestimate. The health effects of changes in expenditure are greater when PCTs are under more financial pressure and are more likely to be disinvesting than investing. This indicates that the central estimate of the threshold is likely to be an overestimate for all technologies which impose net costs on the NHS and the appropriate threshold to apply should be lower for technologies which have a greater impact on NHS costs. LIMITATIONS: The central estimate is based on identifying a preferred analysis at each stage based on the analysis that made the best use of available information, whether or not the assumptions required appeared more reasonable than the other alternatives available, and which provided a more complete picture of the likely health effects of a change in expenditure. However, the limitation of currently available data means that there is substantial uncertainty associated with the estimate of the overall threshold. CONCLUSIONS: The methods go some way to providing an empirical estimate of the scale of opportunity costs the NHS faces when considering whether or not the health benefits associated with new technologies are greater than the health that is likely to be lost elsewhere in the NHS. Priorities for future research include estimating the threshold for subsequent waves of expenditure and outcome data, for example by utilising expenditure and outcomes available at the level of Clinical Commissioning Groups as well as additional data collected on QoL and updated estimates of incidence (by age and gender) and duration of disease. Nonetheless, the study also starts to make the other NHS patients, who ultimately bear the opportunity costs of such decisions, less abstract and more 'known' in social decisions. FUNDING: The National Institute for Health Research-Medical Research Council Methodology Research Programme.

Mortalidad temprana por sida en México durante el periodo 2008-2012 / AIDS-related early mortality in Mexico between 2008 and 2012

Objetivo. Describir la distribución de la mortalidad por sida (2008-2012) en usuarios de unidades de atención de la Secretaría de Salud de México, en el Sistema de Administración, Logística y Vigilancia de Antirretrovirales (SALVAR). Material y métodos. Análisis descriptivo del tipo de mortalidad y el perfil clínico y sociodemográfico relacionado, de 41847 pacientes registrados en el SALVAR. Resultados. Se identificaron 3195 (8.1%) pacientes que fallecieron en el periodo de estudio, de los cuales 59% murió durante los primeros seis meses de seguimiento en el sistema. De éstos, 87.3% fue diagnosticado de manera tardía de acuerdo con su nivel de CD4 inicial (CD4<200 cel/ml³). Conclusión. Los hallazgos resaltan la importancia de fortalecer los programas de detección oportuna y la vinculación efectiva al tratamiento de las personas VIH positivas, como un componente fundamental de la política de acceso universal a tratamiento antirretroviral en México.

Objective. To describe the distribution of AIDS-related mortality according to the time of occurrence since entry to the System for the Administration, Logistics and Surveillance of Antiretrovirals (SALVAR, in Spanish), among users of Ministry of Health facilities in Mexico. Materials and methods. Descriptive analysis of AIDS mortality and the related clinical and demographic profile of 41847 patients registered in SALVAR. Results. 3195 patients (8.1%) died within the study period, 59% of these deaths occurred within six months after treatment initiation. Among those patients, 87.3% were diagnosed late, given their CD4 levels (CD4cel<200 cel/ml³). Conclusion. Our results underscore the need to strengthen programs aimed to increase opportune HIV diagnosis and linkage to care, as a key component of universal access policy to antiretroviral treatment in Mexico.

Premature deaths among children with epilepsy - South Carolina, 2000-2011.

Epilepsy is a common childhood neurologic disorder. In 2007, epilepsy affected an estimated 450,000 children aged 0-17 years in the United States. Approximately 53% of children with epilepsy and special health care needs have co-occurring conditions, and only about one third have access to comprehensive care. The few studies of mortality risk among children with epilepsy as compared with the general population generally find a higher risk for death among children with epilepsy with co-occurring conditions but a similar risk for death among children with epilepsy with no co-occurring conditions. However, samples from these mortality studies are often small, limiting comparisons, and are not representative. This highlights the need for expanded mortality surveillance among children with epilepsy to better understand their excess mortality. This report describes mortality among children with epilepsy in South Carolina during 2000-2011 by demographic characteristics and underlying causes of death. The overall mortality rate among children with epilepsy was 8.8 deaths per 1,000 person-years, and the annual risk for death was 0.84%. Developmental conditions, cardiovascular disorders, and injuries were the most common causes of death among children with epilepsy. Team-based care coordination across medical and nonmedical systems can improve outcomes and reduce health care costs for children with special health care needs, but they require more study among children with epilepsy. Ensuring appropriate and timely health care and social services for children with epilepsy, especially those with complications, might reduce the risk for premature death. Health care providers, social service providers, advocacy groups and others can work together to assess whether coordinated care can improve outcomes for children with epilepsy.