Response of a novel selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase from thick shell mussel Mytilus coruscus exposed to lipopolysaccharide, copper and benzo[α]pyrene.

Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) plays an important antioxidant role in cellular defense against environmental stress. In the present study, a novel selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase termed McSeGPx firstly identified in thick shell mussel Mytilus coruscus. McSeGPx consists of 197 amino acid residues, characterized with one selenocysteine residue encoded by an opal stop codon TGA, one selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS) in the 3' untranslated region (UTR), two active site motifs and one signature sequence motif. McSeGPx transcripts were constitutively expressed in all examined tissues, and were significantly induced in gills and digestive glands with the stimulations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), copper (Cu) and benzo[α]pyrene (B[α]P). Additionally, rough increases in McSeGPx activity were detected in both tissues under the challenge of LPS, Cu and B[α]P. Collectively, these results suggested that McSeGPx affiliate to selenocysteine dependent GPx (SeGPx) family and might play an important role in mediating the environmental stressors and antioxidant response in M. coruscus.

Biological effects of tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) on immunity in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis.

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are increasingly produced and used as alternatives of brominated flame-retardants (BFRs) and have become emerging marine environmental contaminants. So far, however, little is known regarding the biological effects of OPFRs in marine organisms. In this study, the biological effects of one of the most abundant OPFRs, tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP), on the immunity in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis were characterized by testing the reactive oxygen species, apoptosis, antioxidant system and immunity related gene expressions. Results indicated that both TCPP exposures (10 and 100 nmol L-1) significantly (p < 0.01) enhanced reactive oxygen species production and the high dose of TCPP induced more apoptosis and oxidative stress in mussel hemocytes. TCPP also induced an obvious hormesis phenomenon (low dose inhibition and high dose stimulation) in mussel hemocytes, as indicated by the gene expression profiles of caspase 8 and mytimacin. The down-regulated gene expression levels of lysozymes suggested that both TCPP exposures inhibited the innate immunity in mussel M. galloprovincialis. The significantly (p < 0.01) increased gene expression levels of TLR, galectin, PGRP and LITAF demonstrated that TCPP induced dose-dependent immune stress in mussels. Overall, this work suggested that TCPP could influence the immune system in marine mussel M. galloprovincialis.

Molecular cloning and functional analysis of tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) in thick shell mussel, Mytilus coruscus.

Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) is one of the key adapter molecules in Toll-like receptor signal transduction that triggers downstream cascades involved in innate immunity. Despite of the well study in vertebrates, there is few data ascribe to this TRAF member in invertebrates, especially in bivalves. In the present study, a novel TRAF6 homologue termed McTRAF6 was firstly characterized in Mytilus coruscus. Like its counterparts in mammals, McTRAF6 shared the domain topology containing one RING domain, two zinc finger domains, one coiled-coil region and a MATH domain. McTRAF6 transcripts predominantly expressed in gills, digestive glands and hemocytes in M. coruscus, and were significantly up-regulated in hemocytes after challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosine-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C). Further, the subcellular localization in cytoplasm and the activation of Nk-κB or ISRE luciferase reporter by overexpressed McTRAF6 were identified in HEK293T cells. These results collectively indicate that McTRAF6 is a member of TRAF6 subfamily and plays a potential role in immune defense system against pathogenic agents invasions in thick shell mussel. To our knowledge, this is the first report on component of TLR signaling pathway in thick shell mussel, providing further evidence for the existence of TLR pathway in M. coruscus and contribute to clarify the innate immune system of thick shell mussel.

The physiological effects of oil, dispersant and dispersed oil on the bay mussel, Mytilus trossulus, in Arctic/Subarctic conditions.

Increasing oil development around Alaska and other Arctic regions elevates the risk for another oil spill. Dispersants are used to mitigate the impact of an oil spill by accelerating natural degradation processes, but the reduced hydrophobicity of dispersed oil may increase its bioavailability to marine organisms. There is limited research on the effect of dispersed oil on cold water species and ecosystems. Therefore, spiked exposure tests were conducted with bay mussels (Mytilus trossulus) in seawater with non-dispersed oil, Corexit 9500 and oil dispersed with different concentrations of Corexit 9500. After three weeks of exposure, acute and chronic physiological impacts were determined. The majority of physiological responses occurred during the first seven days of exposure, with mussels exhibiting significant cytochrome P450 activity, superoxide dismutase activity and heat shock protein levels. Mussels exposed to non-dispersed oil also experienced immune suppression, reduced transcription and higher levels of mortality. After 21 days, mussels in all treatments exhibited evidence of genetic damage, tissue loss and a continued stress response. Bay mussels are useful as indicators of ecosystem health and recovery, and this study was an important step in understanding how non-dispersed oil, dispersant and dispersed oil affect the physiology of this sentinel species in Arctic/subarctic conditions.

A novel biomarker for marine environmental pollution of pi-class glutathione S-transferase from Mytilus coruscus.

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are the superfamily of phase II detoxification enzymes that play crucial roles in innate immunity. In this study, a pi-class GST homolog was identified from Mytilus coruscus (named as McGST1, KC525103). The full-length cDNA sequence of McGST1 was 621bp with a 5' untranslated region (UTR) of 70bp and a 3'-UTR of 201bp. The deduced amino acid sequence was 206 residues in length with theoretical pI/MW of 5.60/23.72kDa, containing the conserved G-site and diversiform H-site. BLASTn analysis and phylogenetic relationship strongly suggested that this cDNA sequence was a member of pi class GST family. The prediction of secondary structure displayed a preserved N-terminal and a C-terminal comprised with α-helixes. Quantitative real time RT-PCR showed that constitutive expression of McGST1 was occurred, with increasing order in mantle, muscle, gill, hemocyte, gonad and hepatopancreas. The stimulation of bacterial infection, heavy metals and 180CST could up-regulate McGST1 mRNA expression in hepatopancreas with time-dependent manners. The maximum expression appeared at 6h after pathogenic bacteria injected, with 10-fold in Vibrio alginolyticus and 16-fold in Vibrio harveyi higher than that of the control. The highest point of McGST1 mRNA appeared at different time for exposure to copper (10-fold at day 15), cadmium (9-fold at day10) and 180 CST (10-fold at day 15). These results suggested that McGST1 played a significant role in antioxidation and might potentially be used as indicators and biomarkers for detection of marine environmental pollution.

Identification and mRNA expression of two 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase genes in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis following exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals.

17ß-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17ß-HSDs) are multifunctional enzymes involved in the metabolism of steroids, fatty acids, retinoids and bile acid. In this study, two novel types of 17ß-HSDs (named as MgHsd17b10 and MgHsd17b12) were cloned from Mytilus galloprovincialis by using rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) approaches. Sequence analysis showed that MgHsd17b10 and MgHsd17b12 encoded a polypeptide of 259 and 325 amino acids, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that MgHsd17b10 and MgHsd17b12 were evolutionarily clustered with other invertebrate 17ß-HSD type 10 and 17ß-HSD type 12 homologues. The MgHsd17b10 and MgHsd17b12 transcripts could be detected in all examined tissues with higher expression levels in digestive glands and gonad. After exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals (Bisphenol A or 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether), the expression of MgHsd17b10 and MgHsd17b12 transcripts was both down-regulated in digestive glands. These findings suggest that MgHsd17b10 and MgHsd17b12 perhaps play an important role in the endocrine regulation of M. galloprovincialis.

Molecular characterization of a manganese superoxide dismutase and copper/zinc superoxide dismutase from the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis.

The full-length cDNA sequences coding respectively for a manganese superoxide dismutase (Mg-MnSOD) and copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (Mg-CuZnSOD) were cloned from Mytilus galloprovincialis. Mg-MnSOD and Mg-CuZnSOD cDNAs encoded a polypeptide of 228 and 211 amino acids, respectively. Sequence analysis indicated Mg-MnSOD was a mitochondrial MnSOD and Mg-CuZnSOD was an intracellular CuZnSOD. Multiple alignment analysis showed that both Mg-MnSOD and Mg-CuZnSOD sequences had the common features conserved in MnSODs and CuZnSODs, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Mg-MnSOD clustered together with MnSODs from other mollusks, whereas Mg-CuZnSOD clustered with other mollusk intracellular CuZnSODs with a wider phylogenetic distance. By quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qPCR) analysis, both Mg-MnSOD and Mg-CuZnSOD transcripts were detected in all tissues examined with the highest expression level in hepatopancreas. Following bacterial challenge, the expression level of Mg-MnSOD and Mg-CuZnSOD increased first and subsequently decreased to the original level in hemocytes. In hepatopancreas, Mg-CuZnSOD mRNA was up-regulated significantly at 72 h and 96 h post challenge, while the level of Mg-MnSOD transcript had no significant change. Therefore, Mg-MnSOD and Mg-CuZnSOD expressions were inducible and they were probably involved in the immune response against bacterial challenge. These results suggest that these SODs may play important roles in the immune defense system of M. galloprovincialis and perhaps contribute to the protective effects against oxidative stress in this mussel.

Differentially displayed genes with oxygen depletion stress and transcriptional responses in the marine mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis.

Hypoxic events affecting aquatic environments have been reported worldwide and the hypoxia caused by eutrophication is considered one of the serious threats to coastal marine ecosystems. To investigate the molecular-level responses of marine organisms exposed to oxygen depletion stress and to explore the differentially expressed genes induced or repressed by hypoxia, differential display polymerase chain reaction (DD-PCR) was used with mRNAs from the marine mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, under oxygen depletion and normal oxygen conditions. In total, 107 cDNA clones were differentially expressed under hypoxic conditions relative to the control mussel group. The differentially expressed genes were analyzed to determine the effects of hypoxia. They were classified into five functional categories: information storage and processing, cellular processes and signaling, metabolism, predicted general function only, and function unknown. The differentially expressed genes were predominantly associated with cellular processing and signaling, and they were particularly related to the signal transduction mechanism, posttranslational modification, and chaperone functions. The observed differences in the DD-PCR of 10 genes (encoding elongation factor 1 alpha, heat shock protein 90, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, GTPase-activating protein, 18S ribosomal RNA, cytochrome oxidase subunit 1, ATP synthase, chitinase, phosphoglycerate/bisphosphoglycerate mutase family protein, and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor) were confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR and their transcriptional changes in the mussels exposed to hypoxic conditions for 24-72 h were investigated. These results identify biomarker genes for hypoxic stress and provide molecular-level information about the effects of oxygen depletion on marine bivalves.

Molecular cloning of the ribosomal P-proteins MgP1, MgP2, MgP0, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and analysis of MgP0 at stress conditions.

The stalk, a characteristic structure of the large ribosomal subunit, is directly involved in the interaction with the soluble factors during translation. In the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, the stalk consists of one 32 kDa protein, MgP0, and two smaller, 12 kDa acidic proteins, MgP1 and MgP2, of pI 3.0 and 4.0, respectively, as revealed by analysis of purified ribosomes with electrophoresis and Western blot with a specific monoclonal antibody. Treatment of the ribosomes with alkaline phosphatase showed movement of the bands corresponding to the acidic MgP1 and MgP2 proteins to more basic pH after isoelectrofocusing, implying phosphorylation. The cDNA molecules of M. galloprovincialis ribosomal proteins MgP0, MgP1 and MgP2 and superoxide dismutase (MgSOD) were isolated from a cDNA library or constructed by RT-PCR, cloned in expression vectors and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant proteins were purified with immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC) and identified with immunoblotting. Exposure of mussels at cadmium and sorbitol and analysis of gill tissue extracts showed over expression of MgP0 protein.

Expression analysis of the molluscan p53 protein family mRNA in mussels (Mytilus spp.) exposed to organic contaminants.

In this study, we report the tissue expression analysis of the p53 protein family mRNA in mussels (Mytilus spp.) by means of quantitative RT-PCR. The tissue specific response was evaluated after 24 h exposure to a sublethal benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) concentration (75 nM), showing a 2.6 fold induction in digestive gland cells and a dramatic gene down regulation in circulating hemocytes. The comet assay and DNA gel diffusion tests showed significant effects in hemocytes and negligible differences in the digestive gland nuclei, implicating p53 in DNA damage of molluscan hemocytes. Finally, the kinetics of p53 protein family mRNA expression in the digestive gland of animals exposed to B[a]P and crude oil (0.5 ppm) showed partially overlapping trends, characterised by a common down regulation after 1 week exposure. These data should be carefully considered in view of the biological effects of organic pollutants and particularly following spills.

Ras gene in marine mussels: a molecular level response to petrochemical exposure.

Mussels are susceptible to numerous toxicants and are often employed as bioindicators. This study investigated the status of the ras proto-oncogene in Mytilus galloprovincialis following petrochemical exposure. A M. galloprovincialis homologue of the vertebrate ras gene was isolated, showing conserved sequence in regions of functional importance and a high incidence of polymorphic variation. Mutational damage was investigated in mussels chronically exposed to the water-accommodated fraction of #4 fuel-oil (WAF), and in mussels collected along the NW coast of Portugal in sites with different levels of petrochemical contamination. A ras gene point mutation was identified in the codon 35 of one individual exposed to 12.5% WAF. No mutations were detected in mussels from the WAF control or environmental samples. This represents the first report of a ras gene mutation, experimentally-induced by petrochemical exposure, in an invertebrate species.

Probing the adhesive footprints of Mytilus californianus byssus.

California mussels Mytilus californianus owe their tenacity to a holdfast known as the byssus, a fibrous extracellular structure that ends distally in flattened adhesive plaques. The "footprints" of freshly secreted plaques deposited onto glass coverslips were shown by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry to consist chiefly of proteins ranging in mass from 5200 to 6700 Da. These proteins, variants of a family known as mcfp3 (M. californianus foot protein 3), were purified from acetic acid/urea extracts of plaques and foot tissue. Mcfp3 appears to sort into fast and slow electrophoretic variants. Both are rich in Gly and Asn and exhibit post-translational hydroxylation of Tyr and Arg to Dopa and 4-hydroxyarginine, respectively, with the fast variant containing more than twice as much Lys + Arg. Both the slow and fast variants were partially sequenced from the N terminus, and the complete sequences of 12 variants were deduced from cDNA using degenerate oligonucleotides, PCR, and rapid amplification of cDNA ends. Mcfp3s are highly polar molecules and contain up to 28 mol % Dopa, which remains intact and may be crucial for adhesion to metal and mineral surfaces.

Mapping chemical gradients within and along a fibrous structural tissue, mussel byssal threads.

The byssal thread of a mussel is an extraorganismic connective tissue that exhibits a striking end-to-end gradient in mechanical properties and thus provides a unique opportunity for studying how gradients are made. Mfp-1 (Mytilus foot protein-1) is a conspicuous component of the protective outer cuticle of byssal threads given its high 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) content at 10-15 mol %. Amino acid analysis of mfp-1 extracted from successive foot sections of Mytilus galloprovincialis reveals a post-translationally mediated gradient with highest Dopa levels present in mfp-1 from the accessory gland near the tip of the foot decreasing gradually toward the base. The Dopa content of successive segments of byssal threads decreases from the distal to the proximal end and thus reflects the trend of mfp-1 in the foot. Inductively coupled plasma analysis indicates that certain metal ions including iron follow the trend in Dopa along the thread. Energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometry showed that iron, when present, was concentrated in the cuticle of the threads but sparse in the core. The axial iron gradient appears most closely correlated with the Dopa gradient. The direct incubation of mussels and byssal threads in Fe(3+) supplemented seawater showed that byssal threads are unable to sequester iron from the seawater. Instead, particulate/soluble iron is actively taken up by mussels during filter feeding and incorporated into byssal threads during their secretion. Our results suggest that mussels may exploit the interplay between Dopa and metals to tailor the different parts of threads for specific mechanical properties.