[Henry Head (1861-1940) and his importance for neurology]. / Henry Head (1861­1940) und seine Bedeutung für die Neurologie.

Nowadays, Henry Head is best known for his Head zones. The concept was understood very differently by Head in comparison to what current medical books falsely describe them to be. In reality, there is no direct relationship between one particular skin zone and one single organ. It is certain that the drawings considered depictions of the Head zones in today's medical textbooks were actually not created by Head. From a neurological point of view, Head is important for two reasons: his self-experiment in 1909 to damage one of his own peripheral nerves followed by regeneration was heroic. It has helped generations of neurologists to have a better understanding of the pathophysiology of peripheral nerve damage and thus make a better assessment of the prognosis of such injuries. Head's second contribution pertains to the radicular organization at the level of the spinal cord. The pathophysiology of herpes zoster radiculitis enabled him to develop the concept of the dermatomes on the basis of preliminary work around 1900. Henry Head's contribution was the systematic compilation of the existing publications of the time and amendment of his own cases. As he was the most important neurologist at that time, at least in the English speaking world, and was well connected with people in the German neurology community, it was probably easy for him to make his dermatome maps well known. In retrospect, Head was less successful in neuropsychology with holistic concepts for higher cognitive functions which were in vogue during his lifetime. His late work on aphasia is now considered refuted. Head's criticism of the strict localization was well in syncronization with the zeitgeist of the early twentieth century. Establishing the fact that Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are not easily diagnostically distinguishable from each other was more an achievement of subsequent generations of neurologists and neuropsychologists as well as technical advances.

The mysteries of hysteria: a historical perspective.

Jean-Martin Charcot started his main work on hysteria around 1870, until his death in 1893. Désiré Bourneville had triggered Charcot's interest in hysteria during his stay as an interne in his department, while Charles Richet's 1875 article on somnambulism was the trigger for Charcot to develop hypnotism. Charcot's collaborators Paul Richer, Georges Gilles de la Tourette, Paul Sollier, Joseph Babinski, Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet subsequently became most famous in hysteria. In 1908, a "quarrel of hysteria" opposed several of Charcot's pupils, from which Babinski, who had developed the concept of "pithiatism", was considered victorious against Charcot's first successor Fulgence Raymond. There was a surge of interest in hysteria associated with war psycho-neuroses in 1914-1918, and Babinski's pupil Clovis Vincent developed a treatment called torpillage (torpedoing) against war hysteria, associating painful galvanic current discharges with "persuasion". After World War I, the neurological and psychiatric interest in hysteria again faded away, before a renewed interest at the turn of the last century. Contrary to a common view, the modernity of several of Charcot's concepts in hysteria is remarkable, still today, mainly for: (1) his traumatic theory, which encompassed psychological and certain sexual factors several years before Freud; (2) his personal evolution towards the role of emotional factors, which opened the way to Janet and Freud; (3) his claim of specific differences vs. similarities in mental states such as hypnotism, hysteria, and simulation, which has recently been confirmed by functional imaging; and (4) his "dynamic lesion" theory, which now correlates well with recently established neurophysiological mechanisms.

Functional neurology after the Second World War: The beginnings of neurology on screen (III).

Treatment of functional symptoms has a long history, and interventions were often used in soldiers returning from battle. On the 75th anniversary of the end of the Second World War, I review the portrayal of neurology in documentary film. Two documentaries were released in 1946 and 1948 (Let There Be Light and Shades of Gray, respectively), which showed a number of soldiers with functional neurology including paralysis, stuttering, muteness, and amnesia. The films showed successful treatments with hypnosis and sodium amytal by psychoanalytic psychiatrists. These documentaries link neurology with psychiatry and are remarkable examples of functional neurology and its treatment on screen.

"The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari": The Scientific Debate on Hypnosis and Its Legal Implications between the 19th and the 20th Century.

Movies could provide unexpected information on the state of medical knowledge in different historical periods. The first centenary of the German silent horror movie Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari (The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari) by Robert Wiene (1873-1938) could be a timely occasion to reflect on the scientific debate of hypnosis and its legal implications between the 19th and the 20th century. In particular, this article describes the positions of the School of Salpêtrière (Charcot) and the School of Nancy (Bernheim) on the possibility of crimes committed by subjects under hypnosis and the influence of these theories on medical community and public opinion of Germany in the interwar period.

[Vladimir Bekhterev - A Protagonist of Research on Hypnosis?] / Vladimir Bechterev ­ ein Protagonist der Hypnoseforschung?

Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927) is considered to be Russia's most famous neurologist and psychiatrist. In German-speaking countries his name is particularly connected with the orthopaedic disease ankylosing spondylitis or Bekhterev's disease. He mainly worked in neuroanatomical, physiological and psychiatric fields. In a late autobiographical script, Bekhterev saw himself primarily as the protagonist of Russian research on hypnosis and hypnotherapy. That is why this article scrutinizes important works by Bekhterev in the field of hypnosis and reveals how these have influenced his late work on reflexology.

Urtication (flogging with stinging nettles) and flagellation (beating with rods) in the treatment of paralysis.

Urtication and flagellation were used as a last resort in the treatment of paralysis when all other means were exhausted, and very few cases are reported in the literature. Two cases were identified and reviewed, one of urtication (flogging with nettles) and one of flagellation (beating with rods). In both cases the symptoms were alleviated, but there was insufficient detail to evaluate the therapeutic value of each treatment.

[Jean-Martin Charcot, discovery and nomenclature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis].

In the 19th century, neurologists discovered a series of diseases characterized by limb weakness and muscle atrophy, but it was not certain whether they were variants of the same disease or completely different diseases. In 1869, Jean-Martin Charcot first diagnosed the disease, and began to use the term "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis" in 1874. The disease is also known as "Lou Gehrig's disease" in the United States, "Charcot's disease" in France, and "Motor Neuron Disease (MND)" in UK. In China, it is commonly known as "Jian-Dong Ren disease" .

Adolphe Gubler (1821-1879) or Parisian neurology outside La Salpêtrière in the age of Jean-Martin Charcot.

Adolphe Gubler (1821-1879) is a typical example of a 19th century hospital physician in Paris. Head of a medical unit at Beaujon hospital in 1855, he was nominated to the treatment and pharmacognosia Chair in 1868. He trained many students who became his disciples and remained very close to him. Gubler published prolifically in all areas of medicine. His most well-known work is clearly his contribution to the study of vascular accidents affecting the brain stem, which Auguste Millard worked on simultaneously; hence the eponymous Millard-Gubler syndrome, an example of crossed hemiplegia. Following a brief biography, we will present Gubler's main publications in the area of neurology: on migraine, neurological damage during acute rheumatic fever, aphasia, and the autonomic nervous system. Much of this work was carried out through student theses that Gubler directed. The fame of his contemporary Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) eclipsed that of Gubler, even though the latter was well known and respected among Parisian professors. By tying together the diverse threads of his work, we hope to renew interest in this 19th century neurologist.

Jules Bernard Luys on magnetic pathology.

In the mesmeric movement, one of the phenomena cited to defend the existence of magnetic and nervous forces was the visual perception of them in the form of luminous emanations from people, or effluvia. This Classic Text is an 1892 article by French neurologist, Jules Bernard Luys (1828-97), about the observation of such effluvia by hypnotized individuals. Interestingly, the luminous phenomena perceived from mentally diseased individuals and from healthy ones had particular properties. Luys's interest in this and other unorthodox phenomena were consistent with ideas of animal magnetism in the late neo-mesmeric movement, as well as with some physicalistic conceptions of hypnosis and the nervous system held at the time.

[Encephalitis lethargica. The epidemic at the dawn of neurology]. / Encefalitis letargica. La epidemia en los albores de la neurologia.

Lethargic encephalitis is a neurological illness that shows a wide range of symptoms and signs, including neurological and psychiatric spectrum. It presented in an epidemic way, following influaenza relapses. The last relapse started at the beginning of 20th century and it was deeply described by Constantin von Economo. The illness described first in Europe and North America, was described in many others countries including Chile. There were beautiful descriptions by Chilean physicians like Lea-Plaza, Tello, Iturra and Cienfuegos. Their works showed the complexity of the illness like European physicians did too. The etiology is still unknown; however growing evidence about autoinmune aetiology is gaining force with the use of actual medical technology. In this work, we show encephalitis lethargica, focusing in clinical picture, the beauty of medical descriptions that physicians did at this date.

TITLE: Encefalitis letargica. La epidemia en los albores de la neurologia.La encefalitis letargica es un cuadro neurologico con una variada gama de manifestaciones clinicas en el ambito neurologico y tambien en el psiquiatrico. El cuadro se ha presentado de manera epidemica en brotes que han seguido a los de la gripe. El ultimo brote acaecido a comienzos del siglo XX lo describio en profundidad Constantin von Economo. La epidemia notificada inicialmente en Europa y luego en Norteamerica se presento tambien en otras latitudes, incluyendo Chile. Asi, las descripciones de Lea-Plaza, Tello, Iturra, Cienfuegos y otros medicos chilenos dieron cuenta del cuadro en Chile con toda la complejidad que tambien tuvo en Europa. El origen sigue siendo un misterio, aunque la evidencia creciente de que fuera autoinmune gana fuerza con los hallazgos de la tecnologia medica actual. En este trabajo presentamos el cuadro, privilegiando la riqueza clinica y la belleza de las descripciones realizada por los medicos de la epoca en que esta enfermedad se presento.

[Development through encounter-Kurt Goldstein's contributions to psychotherapy]. / Entwicklung durch Begegnung ­ Kurt Goldsteins Beiträge zur Psychotherapie.

The life and works of neurologist and psychiatrist Kurt Goldstein (1878-1965) were almost forgotten for decades but have aroused increasing interest in recent years. Studies on Goldstein generally focus on his groundbreaking contributions to a holistic neurology, neuropsychology and neurorehabilitation; however, his contributions to the development of psychotherapy have received less attention. The present article reviews Goldstein's substantial input to the development of psychotherapy, and especially of humanistic psychotherapies. It is further shown how these contributions are rooted in Goldstein's observations on brain-damaged World War I veterans. From these observations Goldstein derived a holistic view of the organism as a system that embodies and constantly re-establishes an identity, thereby also defining the meaning of anxiety for human existence and drawing conclusions for the therapeutic relationship. It can therefore be argued that brain research impinged on the development of psychotherapy at an early stage, even though its research paradigm differed profoundly from that of present day reductionism.

Stanley Cobb, the Rockefeller Foundation and the evolution of American psychiatry.

Stanley Cobb founded the Harvard Departments of Neurology (1925) and Psychiatry (1934) with Rockefeller Foundation funding. Cobb was an important transitional figure in both neurology and psychiatry. He and his friend Alan Gregg were the most visible parts of the Rockefeller Foundation psychiatry project, which prepared American psychiatry for the rapid growth of psychiatric research after World War II. Edward Shorter called him the founder of American biological psychiatry, but this misunderstands Cobb and the Hegelian evolution of twentieth-century American psychiatry. I review the major role of the Rockefeller Foundation in the evolution of American academic psychiatry and the disappearance of Cobb's teaching and that of his mentor Adolf Meyer, a founding father of American academic psychiatry.

Jean-Martin Charcot's influence on career of Sigmund Freud, and the influence of this meeting for the brazilian medicine / Influência de Jean-Martin Charcot na carreira de Sigmund Freud, e a influência desse encontro para a medicina brasileira

Background - Jean-Martin Charcot had a profound influence on Sigmund Freud's life and career. The founders of Brazilian neurology and psychiatry were influenced by the ideas of Charcot and Freud. Objective - To describe Charcot's influence on Freud, and both on the beginning of Brazilian Neurology and Psychiatry. Results - After Freud's stay in Charcot's neurology service during the winter of 1885-1886, there was a shift in his interest from general neurology to hysteria, hypnosis and other psychological issues, which greatly influenced the development of psychoanalytic theory. Like Charcot, Freud would become an admirer of the arts, literature, and culture. When Freud began his collection, in the late 1890s, Charcot served as an important model. In Salpêtrière Hospital, Charcot was staging a show different from modernity, capable of inspiring Freud. Antonio Austregesilo founded the first Brazilian school of Neurology, in Rio de Janeiro, inspired in Charcot. Austresegilo also practiced psychiatry, and, together Juliano Moreira and others, is considered propagator of Freud's ideas in Brazil. Conclusion - The ideas of Charcot and Freud were fundamental in the formation of physicians who helped to found and to consolidate the Brazilian neurology and psychiatry.(AU)

Introdução - Jean-Martin Charcot exerceu uma profunda influência na vida e na carreira de Sigmund Freud. Os fundadores da neurologia e da psiquiatria brasileiras foram influenciados pelas ideias de Charcot e de Freud. Objetivo - Descrever a influência de Charcot sobre Freud e de ambos sobre o início da Neurologia e da Psiquiatria brasileiras. Resultados - Após a permanência de Freud no serviço de neurologia de Charcot durante o inverno de 1885-1886, houve uma mudança em seu interesse da neurologia geral para histeria, hipnose e outras questões psicológicas, o que influenciou muito o desenvolvimento da teoria psicanalítica. Como Charcot, Freud se tornaria admirador das artes, literatura e cultura. Quando Freud começou sua coleção, no final da década de 1890, Charcot serviu de modelo importante. No Hospital Salpêtrière, Charcot era a representação da modernidade, capaz de inspirar Freud. Antonio Austregésilo fundou a primeira escola brasileira de Neurologia, no Rio de Janeiro, inspirada em Charcot. Austresegilo também praticou psiquiatria, e, juntamente com Juliano Moreira e outros, é considerado propagador das ideias de Freud no Brasil.Conclusão - As ideias de Charcot e Freud foram fundamentais na formação de médicos que ajudaram a fundar e consolidar a neurologia e a psiquiatria brasileiras.(AU)

[The Contributions of the East-German Sports Medicine Specialist and Neurologist Bernhard Schwarz (1918-1991) in the Field of Boxing]. / Die Beiträge des DDR-Sportmediziners und Nervenarztes Bernhard Schwarz (1918­1991) zum Boxen.

This study is the first to provide research on the East-German (GDR) sports physician and neurologist Bernhard Schwarz. It summarises Schwarz's publications from 1953 to 1966 regarding the impact of boxing on health, particularly craniocerebral injury. Also, the study analyses his work in the context of current discussions. It shows that Schwarz, who was a tenured professor and director of the Department of Psychiatry at the University Hospital of Leipzig and the physician of the GDR national boxing team, conducted systematic clinical surveys and pointed to the health impacts of boxing at an early point in time. He believed that risk exposure for athletes could be minimised through intensive and trained supervision by the coach and the physician as well as through changes to the conditions of boxing matches. Schwarz opposed a ban on boxing. Instead, he picked up suggestions concerning the prevention of adverse health impacts and added his own recommendations, which are remarkably similar to current practices aimed at minimising risk. For instance, he advised that ring-side physicians be trained to recognise dangerous conditions. Today, physicians must obtain a license to be allowed to care for a boxer. In addition, Schwarz pursued the concept of integral medicine. He called for a diversified training of boxers and argued that injured athletes should be treated holistically. Being a neurologist, he emphasised the important role of psychotherapy in this context. He identified the key role of rehabilitation, and suggested that rehabilitation is complete only with the patient's successful social and professional reintegration.

PGIMER, Chandigarh: A temple of holistic Neurology.

History helps us to become better students, judge wisely, understand change, and most importantly, it tells us who we are. It helps us to understand what happened, why it happened and what its ramifications are. Winston Churchill once said: "Study history, study history. In history lie all the secrets of statecraft." Here, we take this opportunity to pay our gratitude to our esteemed teachers who worked relentlessly for uplifting of the department of Neurology, PGIMER, Chandigarh; and, narrate chronicles of all those people who made this department reach the heights where it stands today.

Penfield's ceiling: Seeing brain injury through Galen's eyes.

The cathedral ceiling located in the entrance hall of the Montreal Neurological Institute, planned by its founder Wilder Penfield, has intrigued visitors since it was erected in 1934. Central to its charm is a cryptic comment by the ancient physician Galen of Pergamum, which refutes a dire Hippocratic aphorism about prognosis in brain injury. Galen's optimism, shared by Penfield, is curious from a fellow ancient. In this article, we use primary sources in Ancient Greek as well as secondary sources to not only examine the origins of Galen's epistemology but also, using a methodology in classics scholarship known as reception studies, illustrate how an awareness of this ancient debate can illuminate contemporary clinical contexts. While Galen based his prognostications on direct clinical observations like the Hippocratics, he also engaged in experimental and anatomic work in both animals and humans, which informed his views on neurologic states and outcomes. Penfield's memorialization of Galen is representative of the evolution of the neurosciences and the ongoing importance of evidence-based prognostication in severe brain injury.

[W. Griesinger - a famous European psychiatrist (the 200 anniversary of birth)]. / V. Grizinger - vydaiushchiisia evropeiskii psikhiatr (K 200-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia).

The article contains curriculum vitae of W. Griesinger and an analysis of the clinical-psychopathological approach developed by him for studying illnesses and their systematization. The stages of psychosis' progression in dynamics are shown. A clinical description of primary emerged dementia made by W. Griesinger as well as a description of the status of Grubelsucht, first discovered by the psychiatrist, are presented. The article emphasizes W. Griesinger' priority in the determination of reflexes' exclusive role in the appearance and further development of all types of mental disorders. W. Griesinger's conviction in the necessity of more close interaction of neurology and psychiatry is highlighted.

Neurologic approaches to hysteria, psychogenic and functional disorders from the late 19th century onwards.

The history of functional neurologic disorders in the 20th century from the point of view of the neurologist is U-shaped. A flurry of interest between the 1880s and early 1920s gave way to lack of interest, skepticism, and concern about misdiagnosis. This was mirrored by increasing professional and geographic divisions between neurology and psychiatry after the First World War. In the 1990s the advent of imaging and other technology highlighted the positive nature of a functional diagnosis. Having been closer in the early 20th century but later more separate, these disorders are now once again the subject of academic and clinical interest, although arguably still very much on the fringes of neurology and neuropsychiatry. Revisiting older material provides a rich source of ideas and data for today's clinical researcher, but also offers cautionary tales of theories and treatments that led to stagnation rather than advancement of the field. Patterns of treatment do have a habit of repeating themselves, for example, the current enthusiasm for transcranial magnetic stimulation compared to the excitement about electrotherapy in the 19th century. For these reasons, an understanding of the history of functional disorders in neurology is arguably more important than it is for other areas of neurologic practice.