Endophytic fungi stimulate the concentration of medicinal secondary metabolites in houttuynia cordata thunb.

Endophytic fungi usually establish a symbiotic relationship with the host plant and affect its growth. In order to evaluate the impact of endophytic fungi on the Chinese herbal medicinal plant Houttuynia cordata Thunb., three endophytes isolated from the rhizomes of H. cordata, namely Ilyonectria liriodendra (IL), unidentified fungal sp. (UF), and Penicillium citrinum (PC), were co-cultured individually with H. cordata in sterile soil for 60 days. Analysis of the results showed that the endophytes stimulated the host plant in different ways: IL increased the growth of rhizomes and the accumulation of most of the phenolics and volatiles, UF promoted the accumulation of the medicinal compounds afzelin, decanal, 2-undecanone, and borneol without influencing host plant growth, and PC increased the fresh weight, total leaf area and height of the plants, as well as the growth of the rhizomes, but had only a small effect on the concentration of major secondary metabolites. Our results proved that the endophytic fungi had potential practical value in terms of the production of Chinese herbal medicines, having the ability to improve the yield and accumulation of medicinal metabolites.

Effects of 1-MCP treatment on sprouting and preservation of ginger rhizomes during storage at room temperature.

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of 1-MCP on the sprouting and preservation of ginger rhizomes during storage at room temperature. Ginger rhizomes were treated with 1 µL L-1 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and stored at 23 ± 0.2 °C. Our data showed that application of 1-MCP reduced the rate of sprouting during storage compared with the control rhizome. Respiration rate and the reducing sugar content were also reduced following 1-MCP treatment, while the starch content increased. 1-MCP treatment increased the total phenol content and inhibited polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity. 1-MCP treatment was also associated with a higher ascorbic acid content but a reduced crude fiber content. The generation of superoxide anion free radicals (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) was lower following 1-MCP treatment, while the activities of catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were higher compared with the controls. These results suggested that application of 1-MCP could reduce sprouting rates, decrease the accumulation of ROS, and maintain the quality of ginger rhizomes during storage at room temperature. It would be useful to further explore the role and mechanisms of action of ethylene in regulating the sprouting of ginger rhizomes.

[Correlation between growth characteristics and quality of rhizomes of Notopterygium incisum under wild tending].

Study the growth and development process of rhizomes(bamboo-like part) of Notopterygium incisum and the changes of carbohydrate, endogenous hormones and secondary metabolites, and provide theoretical guidance for the formation of high-quality N. incisum medicinal commodities under artificial cultivation. The One-year-old seedlings were transplanted to the original habitat,and the growth and physiological characteristics of N. incisum were dynamically monitored. The results showed that: ① Seedlings transplanted to the original habitat in spring could form rhizomes(bamboo-like part) in the same year. ② After 60 days of transplantation, the root length and root diameter of underground part of N. incisum had increased rapidly, and carbohydrate content in roots and rhizomes had accumulated rapidly. After 120 days of transplantation, the roots and rhizomes of underground part had grown slowly, and starch content in roots and rhizomes increased continuously, while sucrose and total soluble sugar content decreased gradually. ③ The content of abscisic acid(ABA) in rhizomes decreased firstly and then increased, while the indole acetic acid(IAA) content stabilized firstly and then increased rapidly, and the contents of gibberellin(GA_3) and zeatin riboside(ZR) continued to increase. ④ The content of notopterol in rhizomes was higher than that in roots, while the content of isoimperatorin was lower than that in roots, but the total content of the both in rhizomes was higher than that in roots. Therefore, N. incisum can form rhizomes with high content of secondary metabolites under wild tending, and the growth and development of rhizomes are closely related to changes in carbohydrates and are regulated by related endogenous hormones.

Study of Anti-oxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Genotoxicity, and Antimicrobial Activities and Analysis of Different Constituents found in Rhizome Essential Oil of Curcuma caesia Roxb., Collected from North East India.

BACKGROUND: This investigation was designed to evaluate the chemical composition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, genotoxicity, and antimicrobial activities of Curcuma caesia Roxb rhizome essential oil. METHODS: Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS) analysis was performed to determine the chemical composition, standard antioxidative test DPPH assay, reducing power assay, in vitro antiinflammatory activity (egg albumin denaturation, protease inhibitory assay) by using standard methods. Similarly, antimicrobial activity was tested using the disc diffusion method, minimum inhibitory concentration ability (MIC); while to test genotoxicity, Allium cepa assay was used. RESULTS: GC/MS analysis revealed eucalyptol (28.55%), epicurzerenone (19.62%), and camphor (21.73%) as the major components of C. caesia rhizome essential oil. Potent antioxidant (IC50= 48.08±0.003 µg/mL), anti-inflammatory (IC50= 121.7±0.0013 µg/mL), and antimicrobial activities of the essential oil were recorded better than the standard drugs Fluconazole for fungus and Ciprofloxacin for bacteria. The essential oil also possessed a strong antibacterial effect against two tested bacterial strains B. subtilis and B. cereus with 7.5 µg/mL MIC value, while for fungal strains the essential oil was most effective against S. cereviaceae with an MIC value of 2.5 µg/mL. All the data were recorded in triplicates. Allium cepa assay revealed minor genotoxicity with mitotic index, MI= 27.70%; chromosome aberration, A= 1.1% of C. caesia rhizome essential oil. CONCLUSION: C. caesia rhizome essential oil possesses potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties with negligible genotoxicity. Hence, the present study is highly significant for the utilization of rhizome of C. caesia, a high-value ethnopharmacological plant for advanced R & D and commercial application.

Costs of plant defense priming: exposure to volatile cues from a specialist herbivore increases short-term growth but reduces rhizome production in tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima).

BACKGROUND: By sensing environmental cues indicative of pathogens or herbivores, plants can "prime" appropriate defenses and deploy faster, stronger responses to subsequent attack. Such priming presumably entails costs-else the primed state should be constitutively expressed-yet those costs remain poorly documented, in part due to a lack of studies conducted under realistic ecological conditions. We explored how defence priming in goldenrod (Solidago altissima) influenced growth and reproduction under semi-natural field conditions by manipulating exposure to priming cues (volatile emissions of a specialist herbivore, Eurosta solidaginis), competition between neighbouring plants, and herbivory (via insecticide application). RESULTS: We found that primed plants grew faster than unprimed plants, but produced fewer rhizomes, suggesting reduced capacity for clonal reproduction. Unexpectedly, this effect was apparent only in the absence of insecticide, prompting a follow-up experiment that revealed direct effects of the pesticide esfenvalerate on plant growth (contrary to previous reports from goldenrod). Meanwhile, even in the absence of pesticide, priming had little effect on herbivore damage levels, likely because herbivores susceptible to the primed defences were rare or absent due to seasonality. CONCLUSIONS: Reduced clonal reproduction in primed plants suggest that priming can entail significant costs for plants. These costs, however, may only become apparent when priming cues fail to provide accurate information about prevailing threats, as was the case in this study. Additionally, our insecticide data indicate that pesticides or their carrier compounds can subtly, but significantly, affect plant physiology and may interact with plant defences.

Evaluation of connected clonal growth of Solidago chilensis as an avoidance mechanism in copper-polluted soils.

Plant resistance to metals can be achieved by two strategies, tolerance and avoidance. Although metal tolerance has been broadly studied in terrestrial plants, avoidance has been less considered as a strategy to cope with soil metal pollution. Avoidance may be an effective alternative in herbaceous plants with connected clonal growth in environments having high heterogeneity in soil micro-spatial distribution of available metals and other soil conditions (i.e. organic matter). In this study, we performed a laboratory experiment on clonal growth of Solidago chilensis when exposed to copper-spiked soils (800 mg kg-1) at different depths (0, 2, 5 and 8 cm depth), with (20%) and without addition of organic matter to mimic contrasting microhabitats found at smelter hinterlands (i.e. open bare ground and microhabitats below shrubs). Results showed that plants grown in the 2 cm-depth Cu-spiked soils were able to growth and produce ramets and rhizomes. However, increased Cu uptake of plants determined phytotoxic effects and a reduction in clonal spread in the 5 cm- and 8 cm-depth Cu-spiked soils. Addition of organic matter to the Cu-spiked soil layers allowed clonal spread. Considering that ramet and rhizome production is decreased but not inhibited when copper pollution is restricted to the uppermost soil layer (2 cm depth) and that organic matter eliminated soil copper toxicity allowing normal clonal spread, connected clonal growth may be an effective avoidance mechanism of Solidago chilensis, particularly in environments with high heterogeneity in micro-spatial distribution of metals and organic matter in the soil profile and between microhabitats.

Antioxidant activity of different species and varieties of turmeric (Curcuma spp): Isolation of active compounds.

There are >80 species of turmeric (Curcuma spp.) and some species have multiple varieties, for example, Curcuma longa (C. longa) has 70 varieties. They could be different in their chemical properties and biological activities. Therefore, we compared antioxidant activity, total phenolic and flavonoid content of different species and varieties of turmeric namely C. longa [variety: Ryudai gold (RD) and Okinawa ukon], C. xanthorrhiza, C. aromatica, C. amada, and C. zedoaria. The antioxidant activity was determined using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), reducing power and 2-deoxyribose (2-DR) oxidation assay. Our results suggested that RD contained significantly higher concentrations of total phenolic (157.4 mg gallic acid equivalent/g extract) and flavonoids (1089.5 mg rutin equivalent/g extract). RD also showed significantly higher DPPH radical-scavenging activity (IC50: 26.4 µg/mL), ORAC (14,090 µmol Trolox equivalent/g extract), reducing power absorbance (0.33) and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (IC50: 7.4 µg/mL). Therefore, RD was chosen for the isolation of antioxidant compounds using silica gel column, Toyopearl HW-40F column, and high-performance liquid chromatography. Structural identification of the compounds was conducted using 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The purified antioxidant compounds were bisabolone-9-one (1), 4-methyllene-5-hydroxybisabola-2,10-diene-9-one (2), turmeronol B (3), 5-hydroxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1-hepten-3-one (4), 3-hydroxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-6-hepten-1,5-dione (5), cyclobisdemethoxycurcumin (6), bisdemethoxycurcumin (7), demethoxycurcumin (8) and curcumin (9). The IC50 for DPPH radical-scavenging activity were 474, 621, 234, 29, 39, 257, 198, 47 and 18 µM and hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity were 25.1, 24.4, 20.2, 2.1, 5.1, 17.2, 7.2, 3.3 and 1.5 µM for compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, respectively. Our findings suggested that the RD variety of C. longa, developed by the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan, is a promising source of natural antioxidants.

[Diversity of agronomic traits of Paris polyphylla var. chinensis and their correlation with rhizome yield and active compositions].

The supply deficiency of crude medicinal plant of Paris polyphylla var. chinensis has become a bottleneck for related medicinal industry. An important approach to increase herbal production is to breed high-yield cultivated variety, which characterized ideal plant morphology. In the present study, we collected 99 wild germplasm resources of P. polyphylla and then measured their 12 main agronomic traits and contents of polyphyllin Ⅶ,Ⅵ,Ⅱ,Ⅰ. Followed analyses were used to characterize those traits and explore the potential connection with herbal yield or quality. The results showed that: ①There was ample morphological diversity in wild P. polyphylla, whose variation of agronomic traits reduced according to followed order: content of polyphyllin, weight of dry rhizome, petiole length, stem length, petal length, pedicel length, sepal length, leaf width, leaf length, sepal width, leaf number, stamen number, petal number. ② Most of those traits were significantly correlated to each other and generally represented the characterization of photosynthetic organs or reproductive organ. ③The total content of polyphyllin Ⅶ,Ⅵ,Ⅱ,Ⅰvaried between 0.02% and 0.87% and averagedat 0.13%, which showed no significant correlation with any agronomic trait. ④Plant breeders should play more attention on those germplasm resources with large leaves, large sepals and high stem.

Mycotoxins in spices and herbs-An update.

Spices and herbs have been used since ancient times as flavor and aroma enhancers, colorants, preservatives, and traditional medicines. There are more than 30 spices and herbs of global economic and culinary importance. Among the spices, black pepper, capsicums, cumin, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, turmeric, saffron, coriander, cloves, dill, mint, thyme, sesame seed, mustard seed, and curry powder are the most popular spices worldwide. In addition to their culinary uses, a number of functional properties of aromatic herbs and spices are also well described in the scientific literature. However, spices and herbs cultivated mainly in tropic and subtropic areas can be exposed to contamination with toxigenic fungi and subsequently mycotoxins. This review provides an overview on the mycotoxin risk in widely consumed spices and aromatic herbs.

Protocols for In Vitro Propagation, Conservation, Synthetic Seed Production, Embryo Rescue, Microrhizome Production, Molecular Profiling, and Genetic Transformation in Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe.).

Ginger is a rhizomatous plant that belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a herbaceous perennial but cultivated as annual, with crop duration of 7-10 months. Ginger is native to India and Tropical South Asia. The tuberous rhizomes or underground stems of ginger are used as condiment, an aromatic stimulant, and food preservative as well as in traditional medicine. Ginger is propagated vegetatively with rhizome bits as seed material. Cultivation of ginger is plagued by rhizome rot diseases, most of which are mainly spread through infected seed rhizomes. Micropropagation will help in production of disease-free planting material. Sexual reproduction is absent in ginger, making recombinant breeding very impossible. In vitro technology can thus become the preferred choice as it can be utilized for multiplication, conservation of genetic resources, generating variability, gene transfer, molecular tagging, and their utility in crop improvement of these crops.

Identification and analysis of miRNAs and their targets in ginger using bioinformatics approach.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a large family of endogenous small RNAs derived from the non-protein coding genes. miRNA regulates the gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and plays an important role in plant development. Zingiber officinale is an important medicinal plant having numerous therapeutic properties. Its bioactive compound gingerol and essential oil posses important pharmacological and physiological activities. In this study, we used a homology search based computational approach for identifying miRNAs in Z. officinale. A total of 16 potential miRNA families (miR167, miR407, miR414, miR5015, miR5021, miR5644, miR5645, miR5656, miR5658, miR5664, miR827, miR838, miR847, miR854, miR862 and miR864) were predicted in ginger. Phylogenetic and conserved analyses were performed for predicted miRNAs. Thirteen miRNA families were found to regulate 300 target transcripts and play an important role in cell signaling, reproduction, metabolic process and stress. To understand the miRNA mediated gene regulatory control and to validate miRNA target predictions, a biological network was also constructed. Gene ontology and pathway analyses were also done. miR5015 was observed to regulate the biosynthesis of gingerol by inhibiting phenyl ammonia lyase (PAL), a precursor enzyme in the biosynthesis of gingerol. Our results revealed that most of the predicted miRNAs were involved in the regulation of rhizome development. miR5021, miR854 and miR838 were identified to regulate the rhizome development and the essential oil biosynthesis in ginger.

[Cultural regionalization for Coptis chinensis based on 3S technology platform â . Study on growth suitability for Coptis chinensis based on ecological factors analysis by Maxent and ArcGIS model].

At the urgent request of Coptis chinensis planting,growth suitability as assessment indicators for C. chinensis cultivation was proposed and analyzed in this paper , based on chemical quality determination and ecological fators analysis by Maxent and ArcGIS model. Its potential distribution areas at differernt suitability grade and regionalization map were formulated based on statistical theory and growth suitability theory. The results showed that the most suitable habitats is some parts of Chongqing and Hubei province, such as Shizhu, Lichuan, Wulong, Wuxi, Enshi. There are seven ecological factor is the main ecological factors affect the growth of Coptidis Rhizoma, including altitude, precipitation in February and September and the rise of precipitation and altitude is conducive to the accumulation of total alkaloid content in C. chinensis. Therefore, The results of the study not only illustrates the most suitable for the surroundings of Coptidis Rhizoma, also helpful to further research and practice of cultivation regionalization, wild resource monitoring and large-scale cultivation of traditional Chinese medicine plants.

Changes in the Content of the Glycosides, Aglycons and their Possible Precursors of Rhodiola rosea during the Vegetation Period.

Phytochemical participants in the biosynthetic pathway of salidroside and cinnamyl alcohol glycosides were studied from seven Rhodiola rosea L. individuals originating from a wild population. Plants were grown in a phytotron and samples were taken at 3 weekly intervals during the vegetation period. Based on HPLC analysis, all the key compounds to which roseroot medicinal property is attributed were detected, with salidrosde being the most dominant, followed by its aglycone, tyrosol. The contents of all compounds were 2-3 times more in the rhizomes than in roots. The highest content of salidroside, tyrosol, rosarin, rosavin and cinnamyl alcohol was recorded in rhizomes and at the beginning of shoot elongation. The seven roseroot individuals showed a very high deviation in their chemical content at each sampling time. Our statistical analysis showed that the trend of salidroside accumulation in the rhizome was the most similar in all studied plants. These results have important implications for choosing a reasonable harvest time to obtain the maximum phytochemical content and a better understanding of active compounds formation in R. rosea L.

[Investigation on resource and quality assessment of Cibotii Rhizoma].

The study is aimed to understand the resource and the current situation of the use of Cibotii Rhizoma and provide the basis for protecting and utilization. The method of literature survey, field survey and quality assessment were applied in the study. The results showed that all the Cibotii Rhizoma came from wild resource and was mainly founded in Fujian, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangdong, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Chongqing, Zhejiang, etc. It contains over 5 000 000 kg in the area which total is about 7 000 hm2. The annual output is over 850 000 kg. At present, there is no cultivated resources. Based on the investigation and market sampling analysis from various regions, the results showed that the quality of the collected crude drugs conformed with the regulations of the Chinese pharmacopoeia. However the qualification rate of decoction pieces of Cibotii Rhizoma in market was only 56.4%. At present, the resource of Cibotii Rhizoma could meet the needs of medinal uses. It is important to protect the wild resource which is less and less because of the environmental factors. It also need to make a standard of processing method to ensure the safety, and solve quality problem of the decoction pieces.

In vitro growth of Curcuma longa L. in response to five mineral elements and plant density in fed-batch culture systems.

Plant density was varied with P, Ca, Mg, and KNO3 in a multifactor experiment to improve Curcuma longa L. micropropagation, biomass and microrhizome development in fed-batch liquid culture. The experiment had two paired D-optimal designs, testing sucrose fed-batch and nutrient sucrose fed-batch techniques. When sucrose became depleted, volume was restored to 5% m/v sucrose in 200 ml of modified liquid MS medium by adding sucrose solutions. Similarly, nutrient sucrose fed-batch was restored to set points with double concentration of treatments' macronutrient and MS micronutrient solutions, along with sucrose solutions. Changes in the amounts of water and sucrose supplementations were driven by the interaction of P and KNO3 concentrations. Increasing P from 1.25 to 6.25 mM increased both multiplication and biomass. The multiplication ratio was greatest in the nutrient sucrose fed-batch technique with the highest level of P, 6 buds/vessel, and the lowest level of Ca and KNO3. The highest density (18 buds/vessel) produced the highest fresh biomass at the highest concentrations of KNO3 and P with nutrient sucrose fed-batch, and moderate Ca and Mg concentrations. However, maximal rhizome dry biomass required highest P, sucrose fed-batch, and a moderate plant density. Different media formulations and fed-batch techniques were identified to maximize the propagation and storage organ responses. A single experimental design was used to optimize these dual purposes.

[Research progress on enlargement of medicinal resources of Paridis Rhizome].

Currently, as an important raw material of Chinese traditional patent medicines, Paridis Rhizome is in great demand, which led to its price increases. In order to protect the wild resources and satisfy market demand of Paridis rhizome, the researches in various directions were conducted, involved its chemical composition, pharmacological action, clinical application, resource investigation, artificial cultivation, etc. Herein, the chemical studies of genus Paridis Rhizome, aerial parts of Paridis Rhizome gummy and starchy Paridis Rhizome, and the studies of endophyte in Paridis Rhizome were reviewed and analyzed in order to explore the substitutes of Paridis Rhizome, and provide the reference for the enlargement of medicinal resources of Paridis Rhizome. It manifests that the steroidal saponins, the important chemical compositions in Paridis Rhizome were tested in genus Paridis Rhizome, aerial parts of Paridis Rhizome, gummy Paridis Rhizome and the endophyte in Paridis Rhizome. However, the further experimental studies and clinical verification works should be carried out to confirm the final substitute.

In vitro regeneration and ploidy level analysis of Eulophia ochreata Lindl.

Various parameters including explant-type, medium compositions, use of phytohormones and additives were optimized for direct and indirect regeneration of E. ochreata, a medicinal orchid under threat. Protocorm-like-bodies (PLBs) proved to be the best explants for shoot initiation, proliferation and callus induction. Murashige and Skoog's (MS) medium containing 2.5 mg L(-1) 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), 1.0 mg L(-1) kinetin (Kin) and additives (adenine sulfate, arginine, citric acid, 30 mg L(-1) each and 50 mg L(-1) ascorbic acid) was optimal for shoot multiplication (12.1 shoots and 7.1 PLBs per explant with synchronized growth), which also produced callus. Shoot number was further increased with three successive subcultures on same media and approximately 40 shoots per explant were achieved after 3 cycles of 30 days each. Additives and casein hydrolysate (CH) showed advantageous effects on indirect shoot regeneration via protocorm-derived callus. Optimum indirect regeneration was achieved on MS containing additives, 500 mg L(-1) CH, 2.5 mg L(-1) BAP and 1.0 mg L(-1) Kin with 30 PLBs and 6 shoots per callus mass (approximately 5 mm size). The shoots were rooted (70% frequency) on one by fourth-MS medium containing 2.0 mg L(-1) indole-3-butyric acid, 200 mg L(-1) activated charcoal and additives. The rooted plantlets were hardened and transferred to greenhouse with 63% survival rate. Flow-cytometry based DNA content analysis revealed that the ploidy levels were maintained in in vitro regenerated plants. This is the first report for in vitro plant regeneration in E. ochreata.

[Wild-tending techniques study on Glycyrrhiza uralensis--effect of irrigation and rhizome length on survival ratio, yield and quality].

This research aimed at studying the effects of irrigation and rhizome length on the survival of ratio, yield and quality of Glycyrrhiza uralensis in wild tending condition. Employed the split-block design to carry out the field experiment, sampled with the quadrat method to measured the relative growth indexes and to estimate the yield, used the HPLC (high performance liquid chromatog- raphy ) method to measure the glycyrrhizin in the rhizome and adventitious root of the G. uralensis in this study. The quantity of the adventitious roots and the survival ratio were increased significantly as the length of the rhizome increased (P < 0.01), but the length of the rhizome had no remarkable effect on the content of glycyrrhizin. The average content of the glycyrrhizin in the adventitious root and rhizome could reach 3.03% and 2.12% after 3-year wild tending, respectively, and this results indicated that the quality of the glycyrrhiza using this method was much better than that from cultured glycyrrhiza with the reproducing method of seeding. so using the rhizome as reproductive material to produce the glycyrrhiza under the wild tending condition could get the high quality glycyrrhiza quick- ly and steadily, this phenomenon could be explained by the Hypothesis of synthetic inertia of the medicinal components from the wild material of G. uralensis. But the maximum yield with this method was just more than 945 kg x hm(-2) in this study. So the further work of how to increase the yield in the practical application with the method found in this study need to be done in the next research.

[Resource investigation on rare and endangered She medicine Tetrastigma hemsleyanum in Zhejiang Province].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the resource of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum which was rare and endangered plant in She nationality in Zhejiang Province. METHODS: Using literature method, survey method, plots method and line method, the resource situation of artificial planting and wild resource in Zhejiang Province were investigated. RESULTS: It was a scarce and precious medicinal herb that wild resource was rare and endangered. There were artificial planting area about 104.55 hm2 which expected to produce 173.91 tons in Zhejiang Province. CONCLUSION: In the wild,it is relatively harsh to environmental requirements for growth. Generally speaking, it takes 3 - 5 years growth period to achieve the medicinal value. The wild resource is scarce and the market demand is increasing, which brings about artificial planting to develop rapidly.

Effects of different cleaning treatments on heavy metal removal of Panax notoginseng (Burk) F. H. Chen.

The quality and safety of Panax notoginseng products has become a focus of concern in recent years. Contamination with heavy metals is one of the important factors as to P. notoginseng safety. Cleaning treatments can remove dust, soil, impurities or even heavy metals and pesticide residues on agricultural products. But effects of cleaning treatments on the heavy metal content of P. notoginseng roots have still not been studied. In order to elucidate this issue, the effects of five different cleaning treatments (CK, no treatment; T1, warm water (50°C) washing; T2, tap water (10°C) washing; T3, drying followed by polishing; and T4, drying followed by tap water (10°C) washing) on P. notoginseng roots' heavy metal (Cu, Pb, Cd, As and Hg) contents were studied. The results showed that heavy metal (all five) content in the three parts all followed the order of hair root > rhizome > root tuber under the same treatment. Heavy metal removals were in the order of Hg > As > Pb > Cu > Cd. Removal efficiencies of the four treatments were in the order of T2 > T1 > T3 > T4. Treatments (T1-T4) could decrease the contents of heavy metal in P. notoginseng root significantly. Compared with the requirements of WM/T2-2004, P. notoginseng roots' heavy metal contents of Cu, Pb, As and Hg were safe under treatments T1 and T2. In conclusion, the cleaning process after production was necessary and could reduce the content of heavy metals significantly. Fresh P. notoginseng root washed with warm water (T2) was the most efficient treatment to remove heavy metal and should be applied in production.