Germacrone alleviates neurological deficits following traumatic brain injury by modulating neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.

BACKGROUND: Germacrone (GM) is a terpenoid compound which is reported to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. However, its role in treating traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains largely unknown. METHODS: Male C57BL/6 mice were divided into the following groups: control group, TBI group [controlled cortical impact (CCI) model], CCI + 5 mg/kg GM group, CCI + 10 mg/kg GM group and CCI + 20 mg/kg GM group. GM was administered via intraperitoneal injection. The neurological functions (including motor coordination, spatial learning and memory abilities) and brain edema were measured. Nissl staining was used to detect the neuronal apoptosis. Colorimetric assays and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits were used to determine the expression levels of oxidative stress markers including myeloperoxidase (MPO), malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), as well as the expressions of inflammatory markers, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Additionally, protein levels of Nrf2 and p-p65 were detected by Western blot assay. RESULTS: GM significantly ameliorated motor dysfunction, spatial learning and memory deficits of the mice induced by TBI and it also reduced neuronal apoptosis and microglial activation in a dose-dependent manner. Besides, GM treatment reduced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress compared to those in the CCI group in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, GM up-regulated the expression of antioxidant protein Nrf2 and inhibited the expression of inflammatory response protein p-p65. CONCLUSIONS: GM is a promising drug to improve the functional recovery after TBI via repressing neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.

Germacrone Reduces Cisplatin-Induced Toxicity of Renal Proximal Tubular Cells via Inhibition of Organic Cation Transporter.

Cisplatin is a widely used chemotherapy for solid tumors; however, its benefits are limited by serious nephrotoxicity, particularly in proximal tubular cells. The present study investigated the renoprotective effect and mechanisms of germacrone, a bioactive terpenoid compound found in Curcuma species on cisplatin-induced toxicity of renal cells. Germacrone (50 and 100 µM) attenuated apoptosis of human renal proximal tubular cells, RPTEC/TERT1 following treatment with 50 µM cisplatin and for 48 h. Co-treating RPTEC/TERT1 cells with cisplatin and germacrone significantly reduced cellular platinum content compared with cisplatin treatment alone. The effect of germacrone on organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2) which is a transporter responsible for cisplatin uptake was determined. Germacrone showed an inhibitory effect on OCT2-mediated methyl-4-phenylpyridinium acetate (3H-MPP+) uptake with IC50 of 15 µM with less effect on OCT1. The germacrone's protective effect on cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity was not observed in cancer cells; cisplatin's anti-cancer activity was preserved. In conclusion, germacrone prevents cisplatin-induced toxicity in renal proximal tubular cells via inhibition OCT2 transport function and reducing cisplatin accumulation. Thus germacrone may be a good candidate agent used for reducing cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Germacrone: A Potent Secondary Metabolite with Therapeutic Potential in Metabolic Diseases, Cancer and Viral Infections.

Natural products, an infinite reserve of bioactive molecules, will continue to serve humans as an important source of therapeutic agents. Germacrone is a bioactive natural compound found in the traditional medicinal plants of family Zingiberaceae. This multifaceted chemical entity has become a point of focus during recent years due to its numerous pharmacological applications, e.g., anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-adipogenic, anti-androgenic, antimicrobial, insecticidal, and neuroprotective. Germacrone is an effective inducer of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in various cancers (breast, brain, liver, skin, prostate, gastric, and esophageal) via modulation of different cell signaling molecules and pathways involved in cancer proliferation. This is the first report highlighting the wide spectrum of pharmacological activities exhibited by germacrone. The reported data collected from various shreds of evidences recommend that this multifaceted compound could serve as a potential drug candidate in the near future.

Curdione ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by repressing TGF-ß-induced fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation.

BACKGROUND: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive and irreversible disease characterized by excessive fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation with limited therapeutic options. Curdione, a sesquiterpene compound extracted from the essential oil of Curcuma aromatica Salisb, has anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effects. However, the role of curdione in IPF is still unclear. METHODS: The effects of curdione were evaluated in a bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis mouse model. C57BL/6 mice were treated with BLM on day 0 by intratracheal injection and intraperitoneal administered curdione or vehicle. In vitro study, expression of fibrotic protein was examined and the transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß-related signaling was evaluated in human pulmonary fibroblasts (HPFs) treated with curdione following TGF-ß1 stimulation. RESULTS: Histological and immunofluorescent examination showed that curdione alleviated BLM-induced lung injury and fibrosis. Specifically, curdione significantly attenuated fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation in the lung in BLM induced mice. Furthermore, curdione also decreased TGF-ß1 induced fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation in vitro, as evidenced by low expression of α-SMA, collagen 1 and fibronectin in a dose dependent manner. Mechanistically, curdione suppressed the phosphorylation of Smad3 following TGF-ß1 treatment, thereby inhibiting fibroblast differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, curdione exerted therapeutic effects against pulmonary fibrosis via attenuating fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation. As curdione had been shown to be safe and well-tolerated in BLM-induced mouse model, curdione might be useful for developing novel therapeutics for IPF.

Germacrone alleviates collagen-induced arthritis via regulating Th1/Th2 balance and NF-κB activation.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease. The imbalance of T helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 immune responses contributes to the pathogenesis of this disease. Germacrone is a major bioactive component isolated from Rhizoma Curcuma with multiple bioactivities including anti-inflammation. However, the role and mechanism of germacrone in RA are still unknown. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model was established in male DBA/1 J mice by two immunizations with chicken collagen II. Germacrone was orally administered once per day starting on the day of second immunization for 3 weeks. Arthritis scoring was evaluated every 3 days after second immunization. H&E staining was used for histopathological examination. Levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-4 in serum and synovial tissues of mice were detected by ELISA. Th1 and Th2 cell percentage in mouse spleens was analyzed by flow cytometry. IκB and phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 (p-p65) expression in mouse synovial tissues was assayed by Western blot. We found germacrone treatment significantly reduced arthritis score and inflammation in CIA mice. Levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ were elevated, and IL-4 reduced, in the serum and synovial tissues of CIA mice. Germacrone partially reversed levels of these cytokines. Moreover, germacrone decreased the ratio of Th1 to Th2 cells in mouse spleens. Additionally, germacrone remarkably enhanced IκB expression, but suppressed p-p65 level in CIA mice. Taken together, these results suggest that germacrone alleviated the progression of arthritis that might be related to the regulation of Th1/Th2 balance and inactivation of NF-κB pathway.

Precise discovery of a STAT3 inhibitor from Eupatorium lindleyanum and evaluation of its activity of anti-triple-negative breast cancer.

Michael reaction acceptors (MRAs) are a class of active compounds. There is a great prospect to screen STAT3 inhibitors from Eupatorium lindleyanum, furthermore, to discover lead compounds for anti-triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). In this study, glutathione (GSH) was employed, and a UPLC-MS screening method was developed to discover MRAs. We screened MRAs which can inhibit STAT3 using a STAT3-dependent reporter system. Six sesquiterpene lactones, including a new compound Eupalinolide O (1), together with five known compounds, Eupalinolide I (2), Eupalinolide K (3), Eupalinolide H (4), Eupalinolide J (5) and Eupalinolide G (6) were isolated. Eupalinolide J was identified as MRA that decreased luciferase activity of STAT3. Preliminary activity assessment showed that Eupalinolide J could inhibit the viability of TNBC cell lines. We demonstrated that Eupalinolide J, which is a natural typical MRA, has a notable inhibition of STAT3 activity and a potential cytotoxic activity against TNBC cell lines.

Predicted molecular targets and pathways for germacrone, curdione, and furanodiene in the treatment of breast cancer using a bioinformatics approach.

Germacrone, curdione, and furanodiene have been shown to be useful in the treatment of breast cancer but the pharmacological mechanism of action is unclear. In this paper, we explored a new method to study the molecular network and function of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) herbs and their corresponding ingredients with bioinformatics tools, including PubChem Compound Database, BATMAN-TCM, SystemsDock, Coremine Medical, Gene ontology, and KEGG. Eleven targeted genes/proteins, 4 key pathways, and 10 biological processes were identified to participate in the mechanism of action in treating breast cancer with germacrone, curdione, and furanodiene. The information achieved by the bioinformatics tools was useful to interpretation the molecular mechanism for the treatment of germacrone, curdione, and furanodiene on breast cancers.

Assessment of sesquiterpene lactones isolated from Mikania plants species for their potential efficacy against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania sp.

Four sesquiterpene lactones, mikanolide, deoxymikanolide, dihydromikanolide and scandenolide, were isolated by a bioassay-guided fractionation of Mikania variifolia and Mikania micrantha dichloromethane extracts. Mikanolide and deoxymikanolide were the major compounds in both extracts (2.2% and 0.4% for Mikania variifolia and 21.0% and 6.4% for Mikania micrantha respectively, calculated on extract dry weight). Mikanolide, deoxymikanolide and dihydromikanolide were active against Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes (50% inhibitory concentrations of 0.7, 0.08 and 2.5 µg/mL, for each compound respectively). These sesquiterpene lactones were also active against the bloodstream trypomastigotes (50% inhibitory concentrations for each compound were 2.1, 1.5 and 0.3 µg/mL, respectively) and against amastigotes (50% inhibitory concentrations for each compound were 4.5, 6.3 and 8.5 µg/mL, respectively). By contrast, scandenolide was not active on Trypanosoma cruzi. Besides, mikanolide and deoxymikanolide were also active on Leishmania braziliensis promastigotes (50% inhibitory concentrations of 5.1 and 11.5 µg/mL, respectively). The four sesquiterpene lactones were tested for their cytotoxicity on THP 1 cells. Deoxymikanolide presented the highest selectivity index for trypomastigotes (SI = 54) and amastigotes (SI = 12.5). In an in vivo model of Trypanosoma cruzi infection, deoxymikanolide was able to decrease the parasitemia and the weight loss associated to the acute phase of the parasite infection. More importantly, while 100% of control mice died by day 22 after receiving a lethal T. cruzi infection, 70% of deoxymikanolide-treated mice survived. We also observed that this compound increased TNF-α and IL-12 production by macrophages, which could contribute to control T. cruzi infection.

The effects of germacrone on lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in neonatal rats.

Germacrone is one of the main bioactive components in the traditional Chinese medicine Rhizoma curcuma and has been shown to possess an anti-inflammatory activity. Our present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of germacrone on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury in neonatal rats. Results showed that germacrone treatment significantly decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. Meanwhile, the expression of anti-inflammatory mediators TGF-ß1 and IL-10 was obviously increased following germacrone administration. The LPS-induced pathological changes in neonatal rats were also attenuated by germacrone treatment. In vitro, MTT and EdU incorporation assay indicated that germacrone administration significantly increased the A549 cell viabilities in a dose-dependent manner. Besides, flow cytometry and TUNEL analysis showed that the cell apoptosis rate was significantly reduced in a concentration-dependent manner after germacrone injection. At the molecular level, we found that germacrone treatment promoted the expression of claudin-4 both in vivo and in vitro as shown by real time PCR and western blot. Collectively, our study demonstrated that germacrone protected neonatal rats against LPS-induced ALI partially by modulation of claudin-4.

Germacrone inhibits early stages of influenza virus infection.

Highly pathogenic influenza viruses pose a serious public health threat to humans. Although vaccines are available, antivirals are needed to efficiently control disease progression and virus transmission due to the emergence of drug-resistant viral strains. In this study, germacrone, which is a major component of the essential oils extracted from Rhizoma Curcuma, was found to inhibit influenza virus replication. Germacrone showed antiviral activity against the H1N1 and H3N2 influenza A viruses and the influenza B virus in a dose-dependent manner. The viral protein expression, RNA synthesis and the production of infectious progeny viruses were decreased both in MDCK and A549 cells treated with germacrone. In a time-of-addition study, germacrone was found to exhibit an inhibitory effect on both the attachment/entry step and the early stages of the viral replication cycle. Germacrone also exhibited an effective protection of mice from lethal infection and reduced the virus titres in the lung. Furthermore, the combination of germacrone and oseltamivir exhibited an additive effect on the inhibition of influenza virus infection, both in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggest that germacrone may have the potential to be developed as a therapeutic agent alone or in combination with other agents for the treatment of influenza virus infection.

New eudesmenoic acid methyl esters from the seed oil of Jatropha curcas.

Three new eudesmenoic acid methyl esters (1-3), as well as five known compounds, including three germacranolides (4-6) and two eudesmanolides (7 and 8), were isolated from the seed oil of Jatropha curcas. The new compounds were elucidated by means of spectroscopic methods, including extensive NMR spectra. In addition, the structure of 8 was confirmed by a single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Among the isolates, compounds 4-6 were the first reported from the genus Jatropha. Using MTS viability assay, the cytotoxicity of compounds 2-8 were evaluated against HL-60, SMMC-7721, A-549, MCF-7, and SW480 human tumor cell lines. Compounds 4 and 5 showed remarkable cytotoxicity against all the tested cell lines with IC50 values from 0.5 to 3.5 µM, and the new compound 3 displayed selective cytotoxic activity against A-549 cell with an IC50 value of 7.24 µM, but slight cytotoxicity against HL-60 and MCF-7 with IC50 values of 23.77 and 22.37 µM, respectively.

In vivo antidepressant activity of sesquiterpenes from the roots of Valeriana fauriei Briq.

Antidepressant activity-guided fractionation of the MeOH extract of Valeriana fauriei Briq. roots resulted in the isolation of two new germacrane-type sesquiterpenes (1-2) in addition to seven known ones (3-9). Their structures were elucidated as 1ß,10α-dihydroxyl-8α-acetoxyl-10ß,11,11-trimethyl-4-formyl-bicyclogermacren-E-4(5)-ene (1), 1ß-hydroxyl-8α-acetoxyl-11,11-dimethyl-4-formyl-bicyclogermacren-E-4(5),10(14)-diene (2), bicyclo[8,1,0]5ß-hydroxyl-7ß-1acetoxyl-5α,11,11'-trimethyl -E-1(10)-ene-4α,15-olide (3), 8α-acetoxyl-3α,4α,10-trihydroxyl-guaia-1(2)-ene-12,6α-olide (4), 2-Ethylhexyl-4-hydroxybenzoate (5), 11αH-gemacra-1(10)E,4Z-diene-3-one-12,6α-olide (6), ß-Sitoterol (7), isovaleric acid (8), isoborneol acetate (9), using a combination of UV, IR, mass spectroscopy, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. The antidepressant activity of compounds 1-4 was investigated by the FST on mice. Among them, compounds 3 and 4 showed the significant antidepressant activity (*, P<0.01).

Chemical composition and analgesic activity of Senecio rufinervis essential oil.

CONTEXT: Senecio rufinervis D.C (Asteraceae) is a tall aromatic herb, commonly found in Uttarakhand, India. No investigations on the biological activity of this plant have been published so far. Hence, this plant species became a subject of our scientific interest. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the chemical composition and analgesic activity of Senecio rufinervis essential oil in mice using both thermal and chemical models of pain. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Essential oil from dried leaves of Senecio rufinervis was extracted by steam distillation and then subjected to GC-MS analysis. Varying doses of essential oil were given to mice, 30 min prior to the induction of abdominal constrictions and determination of mean reaction time in hot-plate maintained at 55° ± 0.5°C. RESULTS: The main component detected in the essential oil of Senecio rufinervis was germacrene D (40.19%) followed by ß-pinene (12.23%), ß-caryophyllene (6.21%) and ß-longipinene (4.15%). Essential oil exhibited significant and dose-dependent analgesic activity against acetic acid-induced writhing in mice. The percentage inhibition in number of writhes produced by 25, 50 and 75 mg/kg doses was, respectively, 69, 80 and 85%. The oil, at doses 50 and 75 mg/kg, significantly increased the mean latency in the hot-plate after 15 and 30 min of drug administration as compared to the control group. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The results depicted both central and peripheral analgesic activity of S. rufinervis essential oil which was attributed to the presence of terpenes.

Germacranolides from Anvillea radiata.

The aerial parts of Anvillea radiata yielded a new germacranolide, 8alpha,9alpha-epoxyparthenolide (3), together with two known compounds, 9alpha-hydroxyparthenolide (1) and parthenolid-9-one (2). The structures of the compounds were elucidated from IR, HRMS, 1H and 13C-NMR, COSY, HETCOR, HMBC and HOHAHA spectral data. The major component 1 was tested for its cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity.