Essential oil pharmaceuticals for killing ectoparasites on dogs.

BACKGROUND: External parasites, particularly ticks and fleas, are among the most common problems affecting dogs. Chemical medicines are commonly used to prevent and eliminate such external parasites, but their improper use can cause adverse reactions, and the toxins they contain may remain in the environment. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to investigate the in vitro efficacy of Zanthoxylum limonella, citronella, clove, peppermint, and ginger essential oils against dog ticks and fleas and to test the sensitivity of dogs' skin to these essential oils. METHODS: The five essential oils were tested for in vitro efficacy against ticks and fleas, and the two most effective essential oils were then tested on the dogs' skin. RESULTS: The results revealed that these five essential oils at 16% concentrations effectively inhibited the spawning of female engorged ticks. In addition, all five essential oils had a strong ability to kill tick larvae at concentrations of 2% upward. Furthermore, 4% concentrations of the five essential oils quickly eliminated fleas, especially clove oil, which killed 100% of fleas within 1 h. A 50%, 90%, and 99% lethal concentration (LC50, LC90, and LC99) for the essential oils on tick larvae in 24 h were found to be low values. LC50, LC90, and LC99 for the essential oils on flea in 1 h was lowest values. Clove oil at 16% concentration was the most satisfactory essential oil for application on dogs' skin, with a low percentage of adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed the effectiveness of essential oils for practical use as tick and flea repellents and eliminators. Essential-oil-based pharmaceutical can replace chemical pesticides and provide benefits for both consumers and the environment.

Sterile neutrophilic dermatitis in a cat associated with a topical plant-derived oil flea preventative.

A 4-year-old, female spayed, domestic short hair cat presented with an acute eruption of pustules and bullous plaques after application of a plant-based, essential oil flea preventative. Histopathological evaluation of biopsies revealed severe neutrophilic infiltrate within the dermis and culture was negative. The cat's skin lesions responded rapidly to glucocorticoid monotherapy.

Un chat européen de 4 ans, femelle stérilisée, est présenté avec une éruption aigue de pustules et de plaques bulleuses après application d'huiles essentielles anti-puces. L'examen histopathologique de biopsies révèle un infiltrat neutrophilique sévère au sein du derme et la culture était négative. Les lésions cutanées du chat ont rapidement répondu à une corticothérapie.

Una gata doméstica de pelo corto esterilizada de 4 años de edad presentó una erupción aguda de pústulas y placas vesiculares después de la aplicación de un preventivo de pulgas con aceite esencial. La evaluación histopatológica de las biopsias reveló un infiltrado neutrofílico severo dentro de la dermis y el cultivo fue negativo. Las lesiones cutáneas del gato respondieron rápidamente a la monoterapia con glucocorticoides.

Uma gata doméstica de pelo curto castrada, de quatro anos de idade, foi apresentada com um quadro agudo de erupção de pústulas e placas bolhosas após a aplicação de um óleo preventivo de pulgas. A avaliação histopatológica dos fragmentos de biópsia revelou grave infiltrado inflamatório neutrofílico na derme e a cultura foi negativa. As lesões cutâneas da gata responderam rapidamente à monoterapia com glicocorticoides.

Evaluating the potentials of randomised integrated control trial on tungiasis in a South-western Nigerian community.

Considering the fact that new, safe and incorporable treatment alternatives to therapeutic prophylaxis for tungiasis are lacking and sometimes proving difficult, this present study evaluated the potentials of integrating control approach involving focal premise treatment using 5% emulsifiable concentrate of cypermethrin, and topical application of Piper guineense oil with personal protection. Of the 90 houses selected, their floors were classified into paved rooms & unpaved verandas, paved verandas & unpaved rooms, paved rooms & verandas, and unpaved rooms & verandas, and tested for the presence of sand fleas using the sweeping and beating as well as soil collection and extraction by tullgren funnel method before fumigation. A total of 100 individuals partitioned into four groups of 25 individuals each were assigned 3%, 5%, 10% and 15% of P. guineense oil irrespective of stages of embedded fleas. The mean of sand fleas decreased from 1.14, 0.07, 0.21, and 1.66 to 0.37, 0.02, 0.09 and 1.08 after two weeks of single spray compared to the untreated location (p <  0.001). Furthermore, the mean lesions of stage I reduced to 0 after 2 to 6 days of 3%, 5%, 10% and 15% ointment application, and stage II and III after 10 to 12 days of 10% and 15% application respectively. The difference between tungiasis stages and exposure time for P. guineense ointment was highly significant p = 0.007 and p = 0.0002. Notable reduction in severity score of acute and chronic tungiasis was observed thus indicating effectiveness of the topical ointment. Hexanolic oil extracts of P. guineense in 10% and 15% concentration would kill embedded sand flea and ameliorate the sufferings in endemic settings.

Mouthpart homologies and life habits of Mesozoic long-proboscid scorpionflies.

Mesozoic long-proboscid scorpionflies (Mesopsychoidea) provide important clues to ancient plant-pollinator interactions. Among them, the family Aneuretopsychidae is especially important because its mouthparts are vital to deciphering the early evolution of Mesopsychoidea and putatively the origin of fleas (Siphonaptera). However, the identification of mouthpart homologs among Aneuretopsychidae remains controversial because of the lack of three-dimensional anatomical data. Here, we report the first Aneuretopsychidae from Late Cretaceous Burmese amber, which have short maxillary palpi and elongate mouthpart elements consisting of one pair of galeae and one hypopharynx. Their mouthparts are identical to those of Pseudopolycentropodidae (= Dualulidae, new synonym) but are not homologous to those of Siphonaptera. Our phylogenetic analysis provides robust evidence for the debated monophyly of Mesopsychoidea. Our results suggest that the long-proboscid condition has most likely evolved once in Mesopsychoidea, independently from fleas, and further reveal the variety and complexity of mid-Cretaceous pollinating insects.

Is there anybody in there? Entomological evidence from a boat burial at Øksnes in Vesterålen, northern Norway.

Although there are several well preserved Viking boat burials from Norway, until recently palaeoecological research on their context has often been limited. Research on fossil insect remains in particular can provide valuable forensic information even in the absence of an actual body. Here we present archaeoentomological information from a boat burial at Øksnes in Vesterålen, northeast Norway, an area where Norse and Sami traditions overlap. Excavated in 1934, organic preservation from the burial was limited to parts of the boat and a clump of bird feathers which were preserved in the Tromsø University Museum, and from which fossil insects were recovered. The insect assemblage from Øksnes includes the blowfly, Protophormia terraenovae (Rob.-Des.), which indicates exposure of the body and the probable timing of the burial. The high numbers of the human flea, Pulex irritans L. from among the feathers, suggests that these, probably from a pillow under the corpse, originated from within a domestic context. Deposition of flowers as part of the burial is discussed on the basis of the insect fauna. The absence of a body and any associated post burial decay fauna implies its exhumation and disposal elsewhere and this is discussed in the context of other exhumed medieval burials and Saga and other sources.

Do parasites and antioxidant availability affect begging behaviour, growth rate and resistance to oxidative stress?

Early-life trade-offs faced by developing offspring can have long-term consequences for their future fitness. Young offspring use begging displays to solicit resources from their parents and have been selected to grow fast to maximize survival. However, growth and begging behaviour are generally traded off against self-maintenance. Oxidative stress, a physiological mediator of life-history trade-offs, may play a major role in this trade-off by constraining, or being costly to, growth and begging behaviour. Yet, despite implications for the evolution of life-history strategies and parent-offspring conflicts, the interplay between growth, begging behaviour and resistance to oxidative stress remains to be investigated. We experimentally challenged wild great tit (Parus major) offspring by infesting nests with a common ectoparasite, the hen flea (Ceratophyllus gallinae), and simultaneously tested for compensating effects of increased vitamin E availability, a common dietary antioxidant. We further quantified the experimental treatment effects on offspring growth, begging intensity and oxidative stress. Flea-infested nestlings of both sexes showed reduced body mass during the first half of the nestling phase, but this effect vanished short before fledging. Begging intensity and oxidative stress of both sexes were unaffected by both experimental treatments. Feeding rates were not affected by the experimental treatments, but parents of flea-infested nests fed nestlings with a higher proportion of caterpillars, the main source of antioxidants. Additionally, female nestlings begged significantly less than males in control nests, whereas both sexes begged at similar rates in vitamin E-supplemented nests. Our study shows that a parasite exposure does not necessarily affect oxidative stress levels or begging intensity, but suggests that parents can compensate for negative effects of parasitism by modifying food composition. Furthermore, our results indicate that the begging capacity of the less competitive sex is constrained by antioxidant availability.

World checklist of flea-beetles of the genus Epitrix (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae: Alticini).

The world checklist of the genus Epitrix (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae: Alticini) is necessary, since many species of this genus are serious pests of potato and other Solanaceae, and since some species have been inadvertedly introduced from one continent to another and established. We have compiled the catalogue of all species described to date. There are 162 species and 11 subspecies in the world. The geographic distribution is indicated for each species.

Early divergent strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 years ago.

The bacteria Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague and has caused human pandemics with millions of deaths in historic times. How and when it originated remains contentious. Here, we report the oldest direct evidence of Yersinia pestis identified by ancient DNA in human teeth from Asia and Europe dating from 2,800 to 5,000 years ago. By sequencing the genomes, we find that these ancient plague strains are basal to all known Yersinia pestis. We find the origins of the Yersinia pestis lineage to be at least two times older than previous estimates. We also identify a temporal sequence of genetic changes that lead to increased virulence and the emergence of the bubonic plague. Our results show that plague infection was endemic in the human populations of Eurasia at least 3,000 years before any historical recordings of pandemics.

Parasites suppress immune-enhancing effect of methionine in nestling great tits.

After birth, an organism needs to invest both in somatic growth and in the development of efficient immune functions to counter the effects of pathogens, and hence an investment trade-off is predicted. To explore this trade-off, we simultaneously exposed nestling great tits (Parus major) to a common ectoparasite, while stimulating immune function. Using a 2 × 2 experimental design, we first infested half of the nests with hen fleas (Ceratophyllus gallinae) on day 3 post-hatch and later, on day 9-13 post-hatch, and then supplemented half of the nestlings within each nest with an immuno-enhancing amino acid (methionine). We then assessed the non-specific immune response by measuring both the inflammatory response to a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and assessing the levels of acute phase proteins (APP). In parasite-infested nestlings, methionine had a negative effect on body mass close to fledging. Methionine had an immune-enhancing effect in the absence of ectoparasites only. The inflammatory response to LPS was significantly lower in nestlings infested with fleas and was also lower in nestlings supplemented with methionine. These patterns of immune responses suggest an immunosuppressive effect of ectoparasites that could neutralise the immune-enhancing effect of methionine. Our study thus suggests that the trade-off between investment in life history traits and immune function is only partly dependent on available resources, but shows that parasites may influence this trade-off in a more complex way, by also inhibiting important physiological functions.

An improved bioassay facilitates the screening of repellents against cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

BACKGROUND: Repellents are a common method for preventing flea bites, making an effective system for flea repellent screening advantageous. We describe an improved technique to facilitate repellent activity screening of numerous plant-based Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea) repellents. RESULTS: Two long strips of filter paper were impregnated with test compounds (dissolved in ethanol) and ethanol only, respectively. After drying, the two filter papers were glued together along the long side and inserted into a glass tube containing non-fed cat fleas. The distribution of cat fleas in each half of the filter paper was recorded after 30 min to calculate repellency. Results showed that the essential oil of Cinnamomum osmophloeum (from leaf), Taiwania cryptomerioides (from heartwood) and Plectranthus amboinicus (from leaf) exhibits repellent activity against cat fleas in a dose dependent manner. Moreover, the repellent activities against cat fleas of 2% trans-cinnamaldehyde (the main constituent of Ci. osmophloeum essential oil) and 0.5% thymol (the main constituent of P. amboinicus essential oil) are 97.6% and 90.6%, and can persist for up to 4 and 8 h, respectively. These results are comparable to those of 15% DEET. CONCLUSION: The proposed screening technique can facilitate the pre-screening of numerous flea repellents for further evaluation on animal or human subjects.

Transient hyperlipidemia in a litter of kittens.

OBJECTIVE: To describe an entire litter of kittens with severe hyperlipidemia and subsequent successful, low-cost treatment that included high protein enteral support and parasite control. Previous case studies of similarly affected kittens have focused on a genetic etiology and on advanced interventions. The role of negative energy balance and additional factors influencing hyperlipidemia, as well as treatment and prognosis are discussed. CASE SUMMARY: Three of 6 kittens died or were euthanized due to severe clinical signs attributable to multiorgan failure associated with subacute hyperlipidemia. The remaining 3 kittens, although subclinical, were found to have similar biochemical abnormalities, including severe anemia and hypertriglyceridemia. Flea treatment and weaning with assisted enteral support prevented the worsening of clinical signs and returned biochemical parameters to within reference intervals. UNIQUE INFORMATION PROVIDED: Transient hyperlipidemia in kittens has been previously reported and successfully treated with administration of oxygen, blood transfusion, and diet change; these treatment recommendations may not always be financially feasible, resulting in euthanasia of affected kittens. In contrast, this report describes a successful, low-cost, outpatient approach of flea control, weaning, and introduction of a high protein enteral diet. It also highlights the importance of screening and treating seemingly unaffected littermates, provides new, previously unreported biochemical and histopathology findings, and proposes that negative energy balance is a significant factor in the development of transient hyperlipidemia in kittens.

Diverse transitional giant fleas from the Mesozoic era of China.

Fleas are one of the major lineages of ectoparasitic insects and are now highly specialized for feeding on the blood of birds or mammals. This has isolated them among holometabolan insect orders, although they derive from the Antliophora (scorpionflies and true flies). Like most ectoparasitic lineages, their fossil record is meagre and confined to Cenozoic-era representatives of modern families, so that we lack evidence of the origins of fleas in the Mesozoic era. The origins of the first recognized Cretaceous stem-group flea, Tarwinia, remains highly controversial. Here we report fossils of the oldest definitive fleas--giant forms from the Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous periods of China. They exhibit many defining features of fleas but retain primitive traits such as non-jumping hindlegs. More importantly, all have stout and elongate sucking siphons for piercing the hides of their hosts, implying that these fleas may be rooted among the pollinating 'long siphonate' scorpionflies of the Mesozoic. Their special morphology suggests that their earliest hosts were hairy or feathered 'reptilians', and that they radiated to mammalian and bird hosts later in the Cenozoic.

Lack of antimicrobial resistance in Yersinia pestis isolates from 17 countries in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

Yersinia pestis is the causative agent of plague, a fulminant disease that is often fatal without antimicrobial treatment. Plasmid (IncA/C)-mediated multidrug resistance in Y. pestis was reported in 1995 in Madagascar and has generated considerable public health concern, most recently because of the identification of IncA/C multidrug-resistant plasmids in other zoonotic pathogens. Here, we demonstrate no resistance in 392 Y. pestis isolates from 17 countries to eight antimicrobials used for treatment or prophylaxis of plague.

Uninvited guests: traditional insect repellents in Estonia used against the clothes moth Tineola bisselliella, human flea Pulex irritons and bedbug Cimex lectularius.

Extensive folklore records from pre-modern Estonia give us an excellent opportunity to study a variety of local plant knowledge and plant use among the peasantry in various parts of the country. One important biocultural domain where plant knowledge has been crucial was in the various methods of combating different ectoparasites that cohabited and coexisted with humans and their domestic animals. Some of these methods were widely known (world-wide, Eurasia, Europe, Baltic Rim), while others were more local. Here we discuss ways of reducing clothes moths Tineola bisselliella (Hummel) (Lepidoptera: Tineidae), human fleas Pulex irritons L. (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) and bedbugs Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) with the help of plants. Various taxa used as traditional repellents have been identified. The use of plants as repellents and their toxic principles are also discussed from a comparative perspective.

Costs and benefits of experimentally induced changes in the allocation of growth versus immune function under differential exposure to ectoparasites.

BACKGROUND: Ecological immunology has focused on the costs of investment in immunocompetence. However, understanding optimal resource allocation to immune defence requires also identification of its benefits, which are likely to occur only when parasites are abundant. METHODOLOGY: We manipulated the abundance of parasitic hen fleas in blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) nests, and supplemented their hosts, the nestlings, with methionine (a sulphur amino acid enhancing cell-mediated immunity) during day 3-6. We found a significant interaction between these two experimental factors on the development of immune defences and growth rates. Only in parasitized nests did methionine supplementation boost immune (PHA) response, and did nestling with experimentally increased immunocompetence show a relatively faster growth rate than control nestlings between days 6-9. Hence, the allocation of resources into immune defence and its growth-benefits are apparent only in presence of parasites. The main cost of methionine-induced increased allocation to the immune system was an increase in mortality, independently of ectoparasites. Nestlings in all treatments compensated initial growth reduction and all reached equal body size at day 16 (just prior to fledging), indicating a lack of long-term benefits. In addition, methionine treatment tended (P = 0.09) to lower circulating plasma immunoglobulin levels, possibly indicating a trade-off between the cell-mediated and humoral components of the immune system. CONCLUSIONS: We found no strong benefits of an increased investment in immunocompetence in a parasite-rich environment. Any deviation from the growth trajectory (due to changes in allocation induced by methionine) is largely detrimental for survival. Hence, while costs are apparent identifying the benefits of investment in immunocompetence during ontogeny is challenging.

Tungiasis en población indígena del departamento de Vaupés: epidemiología, clínica, tratamiento y prevención / Tungiasis in native amerindians in Vaupés province: epidemiology, clinical aspects, treatment, and prevention

Introducción. La tungiasis, o infestación cutánea por la pulga Tunga penetrans, ocurre en comunidades muy pobres.Objetivo. Presentar la entidad en indígenas del Vaupés. Métodos. En primer lugar, se revisó el tema. Luego, se describió el área y la vivienda de los pacientes afectados; se detectaron los animales infestados con la zoonosis. Se iIustró el aspecto clínico y sus complicaciones y, posteriormente, se trataron los pacientes con creolina. Se logró hacer modificaciones en el piso de las malocas de dos comunidades, con humedad y arcilla, y se impartió educación a la comunidad sobre esta parasitosis. Resultados. El 95% de los 33.000 habitantes del Vaupés son indígenas. Algunos moran en viviendas de piso arenoso, seco, con detritos alimenticios y perros con tungiasis. Entre 1996 y 2007 confirmamos 942 casos del parasitismo. De los indígenas estudiados, 3 a 8 de cada 1.000 y 62% de los perros, presentaban tungiasis. Los pies se vieron afectados en 98% de los pacientes. Se presentaron casos graves con más de 20 lesiones, en niños y ancianos. Como complicaciones, se presentaron: infección secundaria, dolor, anoniquia, deformación y amputación de los dedos de los pies e imposibilidad para la marcha. Hubo sepsis mortal en tres pacientes. No se presentaron casos de tétanos. Los baños con creolina y la extracción del parásito fueron curativos, en hombres y animales. La modificación de los pisos redujo a cero la enfermedad en una comunidad. Conclusiones. La enfermedad es intradomiciliaria. El piso de la vivienda y la convivencia con perros infestados son ideales para adquirirla. La creolina, la humectación del piso y el cubrirlo con arcilla controlaron un foco de la enfermedad, actividad que podría generalizarse. Ésta es la primera investigación colombiana sobre la tungiasis, entidad conocida en Colombia desde que afectó a los soldados de Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, fundador de Santafé de Bogotá en 1538.

Introduction. Tungiasis, the skin infestation with the flea Tunga penetrans, occurs in poor communities.Objective. To present a study of this condition among native Amerindians from Vaupés (Colombia). Methods. After reviewing this topic, we present a description of the geographic area and the housing of the affected subjects; animal carriers infected with this zoonosis were also detected. We illustrate the clinical aspects and complications. Patients were treated with creolin (liquid cresol). We modified the floor of malocas in two communities using wet clay, and we educated the community on this parasite. Results. About 95% of the 33,000 inhabitants of Vaupés are native Amerindians. Some households have dry sandy floors, where food leftovers attract dogs infested with tungiasis. From 1996 to 2007 we confirmed 942 human cases of this parasitic disease. Among the native communities, 3 to 8 per 1,000 persons and 62% of the dogs have tungiasis. Feet were affected in 98% of the patients. Severe cases, with more than 20 lesions, occurred among children and the elderly. Complications included secondary infections, pain, anonychia (loss of toenails), toe deformities, amputation of toes and walking problems. Three patients died as a result of sepsis originating from toe infections. Topic use of liquid creolin and extraction of the parasite cured the problem in humans and dogs. Floor modifications eradicated the problem in one community. Conclusions. Tungiasis is an intradomiciliary disease. Favorable conditions for infestations include dry sandy floors and infected dogs. Treatment of the floors with creolin and wet clay resulted in control of one focus of the disease; this method could be applied more widely. This is the first known research study on tungiasis in Colombia, a disease that affected the soldiers of the Spanish Conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada in the 1500s.

Medicinal plant treatments for fleas and ear problems of cats and dogs in British Columbia, Canada.

Research conducted in 2003/2004 documented and validated (in a non-experimental way) ethnoveterinary medicines used by small-scale, organic livestock farmers in British Columbia (BC), Canada. Interviews were conducted with 60 participants who were organic farmers or holistic medicinal/veterinary practitioners. A workshop was held with selected participants to discuss the plant-based treatments. This paper reports on the medicinal plants used for fleas in cats and dogs. Fleas and flies are treated with Artemisia vulgaris L. (Asteraceae), Citrus x limon (L.), Juniperus communis L. var. depressa Pursh. (Cupressaceae), Lavandula officinalis L. (Labiatae), Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae), and Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don (Cupressaceae). All of the plants used have insecticidal activity. Ear problems are treated with Achillea millefolium L., Calendula officinalis L., and Helichrysum angustifolium (Roth.) G. Don. (Asteraceae), Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae), Berberis aquifolium Pursh./Mahonia aquifolium (Berberidaceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae), Lobelia inflata L. (Campanulaceae), Matricaria recutita L., Melaleuca alternifolia L. (Myrtaceae), Origanum vulgare L. (Labiatae), Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae), Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry (Myrtaceae), Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae), and Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophulariaceae).

[Activity of neem extract on the embryonary development of Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché, 1835) (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae)]. / Atividade do extrato de nim sobre o desenvolvimento embrionário de Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché, 1835) (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

The present study had as objective to evaluate the activity of limonoid azadiractin, extracted of the seeds of the plant Azadirachta indica, neem, on the embryonary development of Ctenocephalides felis felis. A dog was sprayed with the formulation 10%, another dog was kept as control, without treatment. Both had been infested weekly with 600 fleas, in the ratio of 1:1 between males and females. The deriving positions of the infestations had been incubate per seven days in assay pipes, and evaluated it percentage of emerging of flea eggs, comparing themselves the averages of the groups treat and have controlled. The extract of nim presented activity on the embryonary development of C. f. felis, keeping superior levels of effectiveness 80% until day +14, beyond diminishing the position and inhibiting the development between urging larval of the percentage of larvae that had come out.