Alternative transcription initiation sites generate two LCA1 Ca2+-ATPase mRNA transcripts in tomato roots.

The tomato LCA1 gene encodes a Ca2+-ATPase and gives rise to two major mRNA transcripts and two distinct protein products of different size in tomato roots. The basis of the transcript size difference was investigated to assess whether the mRNA transcripts encoded distinct protein products. Primer extension and S1 nuclease analysis identified two transcription initiation sites at -72 and -1392 from the start of translation. RNA gel blot analysis of poly(A)+ RNA isolated from phosphate-starved tomato roots using probes designed to domains of the 5'-untranslated region (UTR) or the full-length LCA1 cDNA identified mRNAs of 4.7 and 3.6 kb, corresponding to mRNA originating from transcription initiation sites -1392 and -72, respectively. Screening of a cDNA library derived from phosphate-starved tomato roots yielded three cDNA clones, LCA1A, LCA1B and LCA1C (3.6, 4.5 and 5.1 kb respectively). These cDNAs contain full-length LCA1 mRNA sequence derived from each transcription initiation site, with LCA1C additionally containing an intron of 0.6 kb. Sequence analysis indicated 100% identity between the three size classes of cDNA clones except for the differential 5'-UTR and the unspliced intron. Overall, the results indicate that the two major LCA1 mRNA transcripts are derived by differential transcription initiation and that two of the mRNAs may encode identical protein products, while a third mRNA may correspond to a non-functional truncated protein.

A gel diffusion assay for quantification of pectin methylesterase activity.

Increased binding of ruthenium red to pectin as the number of methyl esters attached to the pectin decreases was used as the basis for a gel diffusion assay for pectin methylesterase (PME, EC 3.1.1.11) activity. The stained zone diameters resulting from the hydrolysis of 0.1% (w/v) 90% esterified pectin in an agarose gel by diffused, commercial PME were log-linear over 4 orders of magnitude, with a minimum detection limit of 3.6 pkatals. Pectin deesterification as the cause for a stained zone after PME incubation was confirmed when only 1 N NaOH, which will chemically deesterify the pectin, and not methanol or acid, the two products formed when PME acts on a methyl ester, resulted in the characteristic stained zone. The stained zone diameters decreased with increasing percentage of substrate esterification, were independent of pH, and were insensitive to simultaneous incubation with two forms of pectin lyase (EC 4.2.2.10), polygalacturonase (EC 3.2.1.15), or all combinations. PME extracted from tomato seeds, cotton fibers, and melon fruit showed pH optima of 6, 6, and 8, respectively. Using individual tomato seed parts, the assay was adapted to quantify diffusate activity and to localize activity in tissue prints. The sensitivity, specificity, and simplicity of this PME assay are superior to all others.

Polygalacturonase gene expression in ripe melon fruit supports a role for polygalacturonase in ripening-associated pectin disassembly.

Ripening-associated pectin disassembly in melon is characterized by a decrease in molecular mass and an increase in the solubilization of polyuronide, modifications that in other fruit have been attributed to the activity of polygalacturonase (PG). Although it has been reported that PG activity is absent during melon fruit ripening, a mechanism for PG-independent pectin disassembly has not been positively identified. Here we provide evidence that pectin disassembly in melon (Cucumis melo) may be PG mediated. Three melon cDNA clones with significant homology to other cloned PGs were isolated from the rapidly ripening cultivar Charentais (C. melo cv Reticulatus F1 Alpha) and were expressed at high levels during fruit ripening. The expression pattern correlated temporally with an increase in pectin-degrading activity and a decrease in the molecular mass of cell wall pectins, suggesting that these genes encode functional PGs. MPG1 and MPG2 were closely related to peach fruit and tomato abscission zone PGs, and MPG3 was closely related to tomato fruit PG. MPG1, the most abundant melon PG mRNA, was expressed in Aspergillus oryzae. The culture filtrate exponentially decreased the viscosity of a pectin solution and catalyzed the linear release of reducing groups, suggesting that MPG1 encodes an endo-PG with the potential to depolymerize melon fruit cell wall pectin. Because MPG1 belongs to a group of PGs divergent from the well-characterized tomato fruit PG, this supports the involvement of a second class of PGs in fruit ripening-associated pectin disassembly.

Divergent fructokinase genes are differentially expressed in tomato.

Two cDNA clones (Frk1 and Frk2) encoding fructokinase (EC 2.7.1.4) were isolated from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). The Frk2 cDNA encoded a deduced protein of 328 amino acids that was more than 90% identical with a previously characterized potato (Solanum tuberosum) fructokinase. In contrast, the Frk1 cDNA encoded a deduced protein of 347 amino acids that shared only 55% amino acid identity with Frk2. Both deduced proteins possessed and ATP-binding motif and putative substrate recognition site sequences identified in bacterial fructokinases. The Frk1 cDNA was expressed in a mutant yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) line, which lacks the ability to phosphorylate glucose and fructose and is unable to grow on glucose or fructose. Mutant cells expressing Frk1 were complemented to grow on fructose but not glucose, indicating that Frk1 phosphorylates fructose but not glucose, and this activity was verified in extracts of transformed yeast. The mRNA corresponding to Frk2 accumulated to high levels in young, developing tomato fruit, whereas the Frk1 mRNA accumulated to higher levels late in fruit development. The results indicate that fructokinase in tomato is encoded by two divergent genes, which exhibit a differential pattern of expression during fruit development.

Two plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase genes expressed in guard cells of Vicia faba are also expressed throughout the plant.

Guard cells modulate stomatal apertures in response to hormones, metabolic demands and environmental stimuli. The guard cell PM H(+)-ATPases play a critical role in this process by generating the electrochemical gradient to drive solute transport and concomitant water flux. The PM H(+)-ATPase activity is specifically regulated by red and blue light, fungal toxins and auxin. To determine if the unique responsiveness of the guard cell PM H(+)-ATPase is due to the expression of a cell-specific isoform, we amplified by PCR, and cloned portions of PM H(+)-ATPase genes VHA1 and VHA2, which are expressed in guard cell protoplasts (GCP). In situ hybridization to leaf tissue sections indicated that VHA1 and VHA2 genes were expressed in guard cells and mesophyll cells but not in epidermal cells or vascular tissues. Furthermore, a gene-specific quantitative reverse transcription (RT)-PCR detected VHA1 and VHA2 mRNAs in both GCP and mesophyll cell protoplast mRNA as well as in mRNA isolated from roots, leaves, stems and flowers. Thus, two PM H(+)-ATPase genes expressed in guard cells are also expressed in many other tissues and cell types. This suggests that the unique responsiveness of the guard cell PM H(+)-ATPases to environmental stimuli results from cell-specific signal transduction pathways rather than the expression of a cell-specific PM H(+)-ATPase.

Ascorbate free radical reductase mRNA levels are induced by wounding.

A cDNA clone encoding ascorbate free radical (AFR) reductase (EC 1.6.5.4) was isolated from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) and its mRNA levels were analyzed. The cDNA encoded a deduced protein of 433 amino acids and possessed amino acid domains characteristic of flavin adenine dinucleotide- and NAD(P)H-binding proteins but did not possess typical eukaryotic targeting sequences, suggesting that it encodes a cytosolic form of AFR reductase. Low-stringency genomic DNA gel blot analysis indicated that a single nuclear gene encoded this enzyme. Total ascorbate contents were greatest in leaves, with decreasing amounts in stems and roots and relatively constant levels in all stages of fruit. AFR reductase activity was inversely correlated with total ascorbate content, whereas the relative abundance of AFR reductase mRNA was directly correlated with enzyme activity in tissues examined. AFR reductase mRNA abundance increased dramatically in response to wounding, a treatment that is known to also induce ascorbate-dependent prolyl hydroxylation required for the accumulation of hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins. In addition, AFR reductase may contribute to maintaining levels of ascorbic acid for protection against wound-induced free radical-mediated damage. Collectively, the results suggest that AFR reductase activity is regulated at the level of mRNA abundance by low ascorbate contents or by factors that promote ascorbate utilization.

Two divergent endo-beta-1,4-glucanase genes exhibit overlapping expression in ripening fruit and abscising flowers.

Two structurally divergent endo-beta-1,4-glucanase (EGase) cDNAs were cloned from tomato. Although both cDNAs (Cel1 and Cel2) encode potentially glycosylated, basic proteins of 51 to 53 kD and possess multiple amino acid domains conserved in both plant and microbial EGases, Cel1 and Cel2 exhibit only 50% amino acid identity at the overall sequence level. Amino acid sequence comparisons to other plant EGases indicate that tomato Cel1 is most similar to bean abscission zone EGase (68%), whereas Cel2 exhibits greatest sequence identity to avocado fruit EGase (57%). Sequence comparisons suggest the presence of at least two structurally divergent EGase families in plants. Unlike ripening avocado fruit and bean abscission zones in which a single EGase mRNA predominates, EGase expression in tomato reflects the overlapping accumulation of both Cel1 and Cel2 transcripts in ripening fruit and in plant organs undergoing cell separation. Cel1 mRNA contributes significantly to total EGase mRNA accumulation within plant organs undergoing cell separation (abscission zones and mature anthers), whereas Cel2 mRNA is most abundant in ripening fruit. The overlapping expression of divergent EGase genes within a single species may suggest that multiple activities are required for the cooperative disassembly of cell wall components during fruit ripening, floral abscission, and anther dehiscence.

Structure and expression of an inhibitor of fungal polygalacturonases from tomato.

A polygalacturonase inhibitor protein (PGIP) was characterized from tomato fruit. Differential glycosylation of a single polypeptide accounted for heterogeneity in concanavalin A binding and in molecular mass. Tomato PGIP had a native molecular mass of 35 to 41 kDa, a native isoelectric point of 9.0, and a chemically deglycosylated molecular mass of 34 kDa, suggesting shared structural similarities with pear fruit PGIP. When purified PGIPs from pear and tomato were compared, tomato PGIP was approximately twenty-fold less effective an inhibitor of polygalacturonase activity isolated from cultures of Botrytis cinerea. Based on partial amino acid sequence, polymerase chain reaction products and genomic clones were isolated and used to demonstrate the presence of PGIP mRNA in both immature and ripening fruit as well as cell suspension cultures. Nucleotide sequence analysis indicates that the gene, uninterrupted by introns, encodes a predicted 36.5 kDa polypeptide containing amino acid sequences determined from the purified protein and sharing 68% and 50% amino acid sequence identity with pear and bean PGIPs, respectively. Analysis of the PGIP sequences also revealed that they belong to a class of proteins which contain leucine-rich tandem repeats. Because these sequence domains have been associated with protein-protein interactions, it is possible that they contribute to the interaction between PGIP and fungal polygalacturonases.

Analysis of tomato polygalacturonase expression in transgenic tobacco.

Tomato polygalacturonase is a cell wall enzyme secreted in large amounts during tomato fruit ripening. Polygalacturonase is synthesized as a glycoprotein precursor that undergoes numerous cotranslational and post-translational processing steps during its maturation, yielding three isozymes in tomato fruit, PG1, PG2A, and PG2B. To investigate the physiological roles of the three isozymes and the functional significance of the polygalacturonase processing domains in its intracellular transport and activity, we have examined polygalacturonase expression in transgenic tobacco plants. A full-length polygalacturonase cDNA was placed under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and introduced into tobacco by way of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Analysis of transgenic tobacco plants indicated that (1) immunologically detectable polygalacturonase can be extracted from leaves, roots, and stems of transgenic tobacco plants; (2) only PG2A and PG2B were detectable in transgenic tobacco; (3) the polygalacturonase isozymes present in transgenic tobacco were electrophoretically indistinguishable from the tomato isozymes; (4) the N-terminal sequence, degree of N-linked glycosylation, and extent of oligosaccharide processing were similar in polygalacturonase from transgenic tobacco and tomato; (5) polygalacturonase was properly localized in cell walls of transgenic tissue; (6) the protein was enzymatically active in vitro; however, (7) accumulation of PG2A and PG2B in cell walls of transgenic tobacco did not result in pectin degradation in vivo. These results indicated that tomato polygalacturonase was properly processed and transported to the cell wall of tobacco. However, accumulation of the two polygalacturonase isozymes expressed in this heterologous host was insufficient to promote polyuronide degradation in tobacco leaf tissue.