Growth performance, carcass quality, fresh belly characteristics, and commercial bacon slicing yields of growing-finishing pigs fed a subtherapeutic dose of an antibiotic, a natural antimicrobial, or not fed an antibiotic or antimicrobial.

The objective was to compare growth performance, belly characteristics, and bacon slicing yields of growing-finishing pigs fed a subtherapeutic dose of an antibiotic, a natural antimicrobial, or a diet containing no antibiotics or antimicrobials. Barrows and gilts (96 each, initial BW: 27.52±3.98kg) were housed in 48 pens (8 replications per treatment) in a 2×3 factorial randomized complete block design. Pens were assigned 1 of 3 diets: antibiotic free, oregano or tylosin phosphate. Pigs were slaughtered at an average BW of 127.31±10.18kg. There were no differences among dietary treatments for growth performance (P≥0.06), carcass cutability (P≥0.42), loin quality (P≥0.28), fresh belly dimensional characteristics (P≥0.11), IV (P≥0.87) or bacon processing characteristics (P≥0.07). Given the lack of differences in meat quality from pigs fed diets without antibiotics, the implementation of VFD in the United States should not result in changes in pork quality.

Effects of supplementing zinc or chromium to finishing steers fed ractopamine hydrochloride on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality.

Objectives were to determine the effects of feeding ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) with zinc (Zn) and chromium (Cr) on feedlot growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality. Steers ( = 179; initial BW = 533 ± 94 kg) were blocked by BW and allotted to 30 pens, and pens were randomly assigned 1 of 5 treatments: (1) control (CONT), (2) RAC only (RO), (3) RAC + Zn (RZ), (4) RAC + Cr (RC), or (5) RAC + Zn + Cr (RZC). Trace minerals were fed from d 0 to 63 to target 1 g of Zn/steer·d (KemTRACE Zn; Kemin Industries, Inc., Des Moines, IA) and 3 mg Cr/steer·d (KemTRACE Chromium; Kemin Industries, Inc.) for Zn and Cr treatments, respectively. Dry-rolled corn, 0.605 kg/steer, was removed from the diet and 400 mg RAC, per 0.605 kg of ground corn carrier, was top dressed per steer immediately following feed delivery to pens fed RAC. There were no effects ( ≥ 0.45) of trace mineral supplementation on DMI, ADG, or G:F before RAC feeding. There were also no treatment effects ( ≥ 0.46) over all 63 d of the trial on DMI, ADG, or G:F. Despite the lack of differences in live performance, steers fed RO and RC averaged 0.10 kg/d greater ( = 0.10) carcass ADG than steers fed RZC and CONT, while steers fed RZ were intermediate and not different. Steers fed RO had the greatest ( = 0.09) carcass G:F, while steers fed CONT had the least carcass G:F, 0.0875 and 0.0774, respectively. Steers fed RO and RC averaged 5.5 kg heavier ( = 0.09) HCW than steers fed RZC and CONT, while steers fed RZ were intermediate and not different. There were no treatment effects ( ≥ 0.32) on LM area, 12th rib fat, marbling score, KPH, carcass yield, or USDA yield grade and distribution. However, carcasses from steers fed RC had the greatest ( = 0.10) percentage grading USDA Select. There were no treatment effects ( ≥ 0.20) on shear force, intramuscular fat, pH, a*, and b*. Steaks from steers fed RO and RC had 11.4% greater ( = 0.08) cook loss than steaks from steers fed CONT and RZC, whereas steaks from steers fed RZ were intermediate and not different. Also, steaks from steers fed RC had 2.11 units greater ( = 0.03) L* values (i.e., were lighter) than steaks from steers fed RZ; steaks from steers fed CONT, RO, and RZC were intermediate. In feedlot steers, the addition of both Cr and Zn supplementation did not improve growth performance or meat quality when fed in combination with 28 d of RAC supplementation; however, RAC, fed alone or in combination with Cr, did increase HCW.

Effects of feeding canola meal from high-protein or conventional varieties of canola seeds on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and cutability of pigs.

The objectives of this experiment were to determine growth performance, visceral mass differences, carcass characteristics, fresh meat quality, and carcass cutability of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing high-protein canola meal (CM-HP) or conventional canola meal (CM-CV). Seven dietary treatments were fed to investigate effects of increasing inclusion rates of CM-HP or CM-CV in a corn-soybean meal diet containing no canola meal (control). Inclusion rates were 33, 66, or 100% replacement of soybean meal with either CM-HP or CM-CV. Pigs (140 barrows and 140 gilts; 2 barrows and 2 gilts per pen) were fed experimental diets in 3 phases with each phase lasting 35, 28, and 28 d, respectively. Within each phase, diets were formulated to be similar in concentrations of standardized ileal digestible indispensable AA and in standardized total tract digestible P, but NE concentrations were not equalized among diets. At the conclusion of the experiment, 1 pig per pen was harvested. Over the 91-d growing-finishing period, no effects of CM-HP on ADG, ADFI, or G:F were observed, but final BW tended ( = 0.06) to be reduced as increasing levels of CM-HP were included in the diets. There was a linear increase ( < 0.05) in ADFI and a linear reduction ( < 0.05) in G:F as CM-CV inclusion level increased. Pigs fed CM-CV also had greater ( < 0.05) ADG and ADFI than pigs fed diets containing CM-HP. There was a linear increase ( < 0.01) in liver weights, as a percentage of live weight, as CM-CV inclusion increased, but that was not the case if CM-HP was included in the diets. There was a linear increase ( < 0.05) in kidney weights, as a percentage of live weight, as CM-HP or CM-CV inclusion increased. There were no differences among treatments for ending live weight, HCW, carcass yield, loin eye area, 10th rib backfat thickness, or estimated carcass lean. Shear force, cook loss, LM moisture, LM extractible lipid, and drip loss were also not different among treatment groups. There were no differences among treatments for any subjective LM quality evaluations (color, marbling, firmness). Pigs fed CM-HP had increased ( < 0.05) boneless lean cutting yields and boneless carcass cutting yields compared with pigs fed CM-CV. In conclusion, CM-HP and CM-CV may fully replace soybean meal as protein supplements in growing-finishing pig diets without substantially impairing pig performance or carcass quality.

A comparison of slice characteristics and sensory characteristics of bacon from immunologically castrated barrows with bacon from physically castrated barrows, boars, and gilts.

The objectives were to compare slice characteristics and sensory attributes of bacon from immunologically castrated (IC) barrows with bacon from other sexes using a trained sensory panel. Bacon was obtained for sensory evaluation from 3 experiments. In Exp. 1, trimmed and squared bellies (n=180) of IC barrows, IC barrows fed ractopamine hydrochloride (IC+RAC), physically castrated (PC) barrows, intact males (IM), and gilts were used. Data were analyzed as a general linear mixed model and pen (n=48) served as the experimental unit. Treatment (sex or diet) was a fixed effect in all 3 experiments. In Exp. 2, untrimmed, natural fall bellies (n=96) from IC and PC barrows fed 0 or 30% or a withdrawal distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) program when slaughtered at 5 wk after the second dose (25 wk of age) were used. In Exp. 3, untrimmed, natural fall bellies (n=96) from IC and PC barrows fed the same experimental diets as in experiment 2 but slaughtered at 7 wk after the second dose (27 wk of age) were used. Data from Exp. 2 and 3 were analyzed as a 2×3 factorial arrangement in a randomized complete block design and pen was the experimental unit. Bellies from all 3 experiments were processed using the same protocols. In Exp. 1, IM had the greatest (P<0.0001) boar aroma and flavor scores among all treatments. No differences were detected among the other treatment groups for boar aroma or flavor. Intact males had the least (P<0.0001) desirable cured bacon aroma and flavor among all treatments. No differences were detected among the other treatment groups for bacon aroma or flavor. There were no differences in bacon aroma or off-flavor between IC and PC barrows slaughtered at 5 wk after the second dose regardless of DDGS feeding program. Bacon from PC barrows was saltier (P<0.01) than bacon from IC barrows when slaughtered at 5 wk after the second dose. There were no differences in bacon aroma, off-aroma, bacon flavor, or saltiness between IC and PC barrows slaughtered at 7 wk after the second dose regardless of DDGS feeding program. Total slice area of bacon slices from IC barrows slaughtered at 5 wk after the second dose were less (P<0.01) than PC barrows, but the differences diminished (P=0.16) when slaughtered at 7 wk after the second dose. Overall, panelists successfully detected boar odor and flavor in Exp. 1. Immunological castration was as effective as physical castration at eliminating boar aroma and boar flavor in bacon even when feeding differing DDGS feeding programs or when slaughtered at 5 or 7 wk after the second dose.

Effect of feeding ractopamine hydrochloride (Optaflexx) with or without supplemental zinc and chromium propionate on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of finishing steers.

Objectives of this study were to determine the effects of feeding ractopamine hydrochloride (Optaflexx) with or without supplemental Zn propionate (KemTRACE Zn) and Cr propionate (KemTRACE Cr) to finishing steers on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality. Angus cross steers (n = 142; BW = 527 ± 14 kg) were blocked by BW into 4 blocks (6 pens/block, 5 to 6 steers/pen). Steers targeted at an average 12th rib back fat thickness of 1.3 cm via ultrasound, by block, were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 dietary supplements for the final 35 d of feeding before slaughter: 1) no supplementation, where analyzed Zn and Cr were 49.82 and 0.98 mg/kg (DM basis), respectively (CONT), 2) 300 mg ractopamine hydrochloride·steer(-1) · d(-1), where analyzed Zn and Cr were 49.38 and 0.96 mg/kg (DM basis), respectively (RAC), or 3) 300 mg ractopamine hydrochloride, 1.0 g of Zn supplied as Zn propionate (KemTRACE Zn), and 3 mg of Cr supplied as Cr propionate (KemTRACE Cr) steer(-1) · d(-1), where analyzed Zn and Cr were 159.73 and 1.25 mg/kg (DM basis), respectively (RAC+TM). All steers were fed the same basal diet of 20% corn silage, 20% dried distillers grains, 50% corn, and 10% mineral-vitamin supplement (DM basis). Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design with a fixed effect of treatment and a random effect of block. Average daily gain and G:F were increased (P < 0.01) by 16% in steers fed RAC when compared with steers fed CONT. However, ADG and G:F were not different (P ≥ 0.61) between steers fed RAC and RAC+TM. Furthermore, HCW was increased (P = 0.04) by 1.87% (6.61 kg) in steers fed RAC when compared with steers fed CONT, whereas HCW was not different (P = 0.80) between steers fed RAC and RAC+TM. Back fat thickness and marbling were not different (P ≥ 0.14) between steers fed RAC and CONT or (P ≥ 0.34) between steers fed RAC and RAC+TM. Warner-Bratzler shear force tended to be greater (less tender; P = 0.06) in steers fed RAC when compared with steers fed CONT yet was not different (P = 0.34) between steers fed RAC and RAC+TM. However, meat quality, as measured by pH, objective color, and moisture composition, did not differ (P ≥ 0.55) between steers fed RAC and CONT. Although steers fed RAC had improved ADG, feed efficiency, and HCW in this study, feedlot growth performance and carcass characteristics were not further improved by additional supplemental Zn and Cr.

Fresh meat quality and further processing characteristics of shoulders from finishing pigs fed ractopamine hydrochloride (Paylean).

Our objectives were to characterize the effects of ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) on fresh meat and further processing characteristics of muscles (serratus ventralis and triceps brachii) from the shoulders of finishing pigs. Two hundred forty shoulders originating from 120 carcasses (60 barrows and 60 gilts) were selected from a commercial population of pigs. A 2 × 2 factorial in a completely randomized design was used, with factors of RAC inclusion in the diet (0 or 7.4 mg/kg, as-fed basis) and sex (barrow or gilt). Paired shoulders (120 rights and 120 lefts) were transported from a federally inspected slaughter facility under refrigeration to the University of Illinois Meat Science Laboratory for evaluation. Subsequently, right and left shoulders were separated and designated for 2 separate experiments. Shoulders from right side were used in Exp. 1 to determine further processing characteristics. Cellar trimmed (CT) butts from the Boston butt of the shoulders were cured and dried-cured to manufacture cottage bacon and coppa, respectively. Shoulders from left side were used in Exp. 2 to determine fresh meat characteristics. Pigs fed RAC had greater shoulder weights and increased yields of cuts from the shoulder. Feeding RAC decreased Boston butt fat content (P = 0.01) but had no effect on picnic fat content (P = 0.86). Pigs fed RAC had greater (P < 0.01) iodine values than controls (67.00 vs. 64.95, respectively). Inclusion of RAC in the diet had no effect on cottage bacon cooked yield (P = 0.33), but it decreased (P < 0.01) cottage bacon fat content without having an effect on protein content (P = 0.50). In addition, cottage bacon from RAC shoulders had greater slice total area (P = 0.01) and less seam fat (P = 0.01) than controls. Ractopamine hydrochloride had no detrimental effect on coppa processing characteristics and visual appearance. Cottage bacon and coppa from RAC pigs had sensory characteristics similar to controls. Shoulders from pigs fed RAC might be of benefit to the industry because they provide more pounds of sellable product with no detrimental effects on processing characteristics.

Effects of oxidized corn oil and a synthetic antioxidant blend on performance, oxidative status of tissues, and fresh meat quality in finishing barrows.

The objective was to evaluate the effect of feeding oxidized corn oil with or without a dietary antioxidant (AOX) on performance, tissue oxidative status, and meat quality in barrows. One hundred sixty barrows were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial of treatments in a complete randomized block design with 8 pens per treatment and 5 pigs per pen. Diets contained 5.0 mg/kg of 1 of 2 types of corn oil (fresh or oxidized) with or without antioxidant. Final oxidized oil was produced in a heated container by continuously bubbling air heated to 95°C at a rate of 80 L/min to reach a target peroxide value of approximately 150 and 7.5 mEq/kg in the final diet. After 56 d, barrows fed diets formulated with fresh oil had increased ADG (P = 0.03) and ADFI (P = 0.04) and heavier final BW (P = 0.03) than barrows fed oxidized oil. Increased G:F (P = 0.07) was observed for barrows fed diets with AOX after 28 d of feeding but not after 56 d of feeding (P = 0.67) when compared with barrows not fed AOX. An increase (P = 0.06) in plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values, a decrease (P = 0.03) in plasma glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzyme activity, and a decrease (P = 0.01) in liver vitamin E concentrations were observed in barrows fed diets with oxidized oil. Dietary AOX reduced plasma protein carbonyl content regardless of oil type (P = 0.04). Barrows fed fresh oil had 4.4% heavier HCW (P = 0.01) and 0.7 percentage units increase in dressing percentage (P = 0.01) compared with barrows fed oxidized oil. Loin TBARS values from barrows fed AOX were lower (P < 0.001) after 14 and 21 d of storage in both fresh and oxidized oil groups. In summary, oxidized oil impaired growth performance and caused oxidation stress. Dietary AOX partially ameliorated the negative effects of oxidized oil in finishing pigs by reducing protein oxidation and improving shelf life.

Effect of antioxidant inclusion and oil quality on broiler performance, meat quality, and lipid oxidation.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of antioxidant inclusion and oil quality on broiler performance, meat quality, shelf life, and tissue oxidative status. Ross 308 male broilers were allotted to a randomized complete block design in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Factors consisted of antioxidant (ethoxyquin and propyl gallate) inclusion at 2 levels (0 or 135 mg/kg) and oil quality (fresh soybean oil, control diet peroxide value <1 mEq/kg, or oxidized soybean oil, diet peroxide value 7 mEq/kg). Each treatment included 12 pen replicates comprising 24 birds for a total of 1,152 birds on trial allotted to 48 pens. On the final day of the study, 1 bird from each pen was killed by cervical dislocation and used for determination of tissue oxidative status. Another 5 broilers from each pen were processed at a commercial slaughtering facility. Immediately after processing, carcasses were transported to the University of Illinois Meat Science Laboratory (Urbana) for further analysis. With the exception of 2 responses (liver vitamin A and serum vitamin A), no interactions were found between antioxidant inclusion and oil quality. Body weight and weight gain were increased by dietary antioxidant inclusion (P < 0.001) and fresh oil (P < 0.001). Feed intake was increased in broilers fed the antioxidant (P = 0.047) and fresh oil (P = 0.062). Antioxidant inclusion had no effect on G:F (P = 0.18). Antioxidant supplementation had no effect on carcass weight (P = 0.202), dressing percentage (P = 0.906), breast yield (P = 0.708), or breast ultimate pH (P = 0.625) and had minimal effect on breast color. Antioxidant supplementation (P = 0.057) reduced breast thiobarbituric acid reactive substances after 7 d of display. Fresh oil decreased liver thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, whereas antioxidant inclusion increased serum and liver vitamin A and E concentration. The presence of an antioxidant in the feed protects lipids from further oxidizing, therefore increasing broiler performance and improving shelf life when using oxidized oil.

Effects of increasing lysine on further processed product characteristics from immunologically castrated male pigs.

The objective of this experiment was to determine if increasing lysine in the diets of immunologically castrated (IC) male pigs would affect further processed product characteristics when compared with physical castrates or entire males. Raw materials for this experiment were derived from a previous experiment evaluating carcass characteristics. Physical castrates, IC males, and entire males were assigned to 1 of 4 diet programs with increasing lysine in a step-down lysine inclusion program that culminated with the following concentrations in the late finishing diet: physical castrate with low lysine (0.7%), IC with low lysine (0.7%), IC with low/medium lysine (0.8%), IC with medium/high lysine (0.9%), IC with high lysine (1.0%), and entire with high lysine (1.0%). Bellies were injected with a cure solution to a target of 110% of original green weight, and weighed again to determine brine uptake. Hams were injected with same cure solution to a target of 130% of green weight. Cure solution was formulated for a finished product inclusion of 1.5% salt, 0.34% phosphate, 0.05% sodium erythorbate, 0.11% sugar, and 0.014% sodium nitrate. Physical castrates had thicker (3.77 cm) bellies (P<0.05) than all treatment groups, except IC males fed low/medium lysine (3.73 cm). Entire males (2.85 cm) had the thinnest (P<0.05) bellies of all treatment groups. There were no differences (P>0.05) in percentage brine uptake for cured bellies among IC males regardless of dietary lysine (range 9.93 to 10.67%). Cooked yield of cured bellies was not different (P>0.05) among physical castrates or IC males regardless of lysine inclusion. Cooked yield of cured bellies from entire males (95.12%) was less (P<0.05) than cooked yield for any other treatment group. Pumped weight differences of cured hams among treatment groups were similar to green weight differences, and there were no differences (P>0.05) among any treatment groups for pump uptake percentage. There were also no differences in cook loss percentages among any treatment group. Therefore, differences in cooked yield are a reflection of initial green weight. There were no differences (P>0.05) for protein fat-free values among any treatment groups. Therefore, it can be concluded, in this population of pigs, there were no differences in further processed product characteristics among physical castrates and IC males.

Effects of increasing lysine on carcass composition and cutting yields of immunologically castrated male pigs.

The objective of this experiment was to determine if increasing lysine in the diets of immunologically castrated (IC) male pigs would increase percentage fat free lean and carcass cutting yields when compared with physical castrates. The anti-gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF) immunological product (Improvest, Pfizer Animal Health) is used worldwide to immunologically castrate entire male pigs to control boar taint and take advantage of the inherent ability of the entire male to deposit more muscle, less fat, and grow more efficiently than physically castrated males. The immunization process essentially allows the pig to grow as an entire male pig for most of its life and then removes any boar odor (boar taint) before slaughter. Reported lean meat advantages may also provide economic benefits to the domestic meat industry. Approximately 1,200 male pigs [physical castrates, IC males, and entire males] were each assigned to 1 of 4 diet programs which differed in lysine content. In each case, lysine was fed in a conventional step-down program that culminated with the following concentrations in the late finishing diet: physical castrates fed low lysine (0.7%), IC fed low lysine (0.7%), IC fed low/medium lysine (0.8%), IC fed medium/high lysine (0.9%), IC fed high lysine (1.0%), and entire males fed high lysine (1.0%). At 25 wk of age (5 wk post-second injection), pigs were individually weighed and the 2 pigs (n=96) in each pen closest to the median pig BW were selected and slaughtered. The right side of each carcass was dissected into soft tissue, skin, and bone. Proximate composition was determined on the soft tissue to determine percentage fat-free lean. The left side of each carcass was weighed and initially fabricated into ham, loin, belly, and whole shoulder. Each primal piece was weighed again and further fabricated into respective subprimal cuts. Immunological castration did not change (P>0.05) shear force values or ultimate pH when compared with either physical castrates or entire males. Marbling appeared to decrease as dietary lysine was increased among IC males. As expected, IC males had a greater (P<0.05) percentage fat-free lean than physical castrates but less (P<0.05) than entire males. Immunologically castrated males fed diets with medium/high and high lysine had greater (P<0.05) lean cutting yields and carcass cutting yields than physical castrates. Lean cutting yield and carcass cutting yields appeared to increase as dietary lysine was increased among IC males. Overall, immunological castration improved carcass cutability, increased percentage fat free lean, and had no effect on pork quality when compared with physical castrates.

Effect of different dietary levels of natural-source vitamin E in grow-finish pigs on pork quality and shelf life.

Improving pork quality and shelf life is important in today's swine industry because higher levels of DDGS are incorporated into pig diets. Relatively high level of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in DDGS may increase pork susceptibility to lipid oxidation and thus reduce pork shelf life. Antioxidants such as vitamin E may delay the onset of pork lipid oxidation when used as an ingredient in the diet. This experiment examined carcass characteristics, meat quality, shelf life, and color stability in pork from pigs (n=150) fed five levels of a natural vitamin E (Nova-E) and one level of synthetic vitamin E. Natural vitamin E and synthetic vitamin E had no effect on carcass characteristics or meat quality. Increasing dietary natural vitamin E from 10 to 200mg/kg decreased lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation of pork chops and ground pork was similar between pigs fed 40mg/kg and higher levels of natural vitamin E, indicating no additional benefits from supplementing beyond 40mg/kg natural vitamin E. Supplementing 200mg/kg synthetic vitamin E decreased pork lipid oxidation when compared to supplementing 10mg/kg natural vitamin E. High levels of natural vitamin E or synthetic vitamin E, however, did not prevent discoloration of loin chops. These data indicate that natural vitamin E was effective to help reduce lipid oxidation and the effective minimal level of dietary supplementation appeared to be 40mg/kg.