The mean and variability of a floral trait have opposing effects on fitness traits.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Floral traits are essential for ensuring successful pollination and reproduction in flowering plants. In particular, style and anther positions are key for pollination accuracy and efficiency. Variation in these traits among individuals has been well studied, but less is known about variation within flowers and plants and its effect on pollination and reproductive success. METHODS: Style deflexion is responsible for herkogamy and important for pollen deposition in Passiflora incarnata. The degree of deflexion may vary among stigmas within flowers as well as among flowers. We measured the variability of style deflexion at both the flower and the plant level. The fitness consequences of the mean and variation of style deflexion were then evaluated under natural pollination by determining their relationship to pollen deposition, seed production and average seed weight using structural equation modelling. In addition, the relationship between style deflexion and self-pollen deposition was estimated in a greenhouse experiment. KEY RESULTS: We found greater variation in style deflexion within flowers and plants than among plants. Variation of style deflexion at the flower and plant level was positively correlated, suggesting that variability in style deflexion may be a distinct trait in P. incarnata. Lower deflexion and reduced variation in that deflexion increased pollen deposition, which in turn increased seed number. However, lower styles also increased self-pollen deposition. In contrast, higher deflexion and greater variability of that deflexion increased variation in pollen deposition, which resulted in heavier seeds. CONCLUSIONS: Variability of style deflexion and therefore stigma placement, independent from the mean, appears to be a property of individual P. incarnata plants. The mean and variability of style deflexion in P. incarnata affected seed number and seed weight in contrasting ways, through the quantity and potentially quality of pollen deposition. This antagonistic selection via different fitness components may maintain diverse style phenotypes.

[Factors affecting the estimation of pollen limitation in Sagittaria trifolia].

This study explored whether the degree of pollen limitation was affected by the experimental level (a single flower or inflorescence) and pollen quality (self-pollen or outcross-pollen) of supplemental pollination in Sagittaria trifolia. The results showed that the experimental level caused varying degree of pollen limitation. Compared with the inflorescence level, pollination at the single flower level led to a redistribution of resources among flowers, therefore affecting seed numbers. Pollen quality also played a vital role in the estimation of pollen limitation. Compared with self-pollen, supplemental pollination with outcross-pollen resulted in significantly more seeds and a higher germination rate. This proved that in the research system the reproduction was limited by pollen quality rather than quantity. Our study revealed that both experimental level and pollen quality had effects on the estimation of pollen limitation. It was suggested that in future studies we should evaluate pollen limitation at the inflorescence or whole plant level, and also consider comparing self- and outcross-pollen when applicable.

Male flowers are better fathers than hermaphroditic flowers in andromonoecious Passiflora incarnata.

• The diversity of plant breeding systems provides the opportunity to study a range of potential reproductive adaptations. Many mechanisms remain poorly understood, among them the evolution and maintenance of male flowers in andromonoecy. Here, we studied the role of morphologically male flowers ('male morph') in andromonoecious Passiflora incarnata. • We measured morphological differences between hermaphroditic and male morph flowers in P. incarnata and explored the fruiting and siring ability of both flower types. • Male morph flowers in P. incarnata were of similar size to hermaphroditic flowers, and there was little evidence of different resource allocation to the two flower types. Male morph flowers were less capable of producing fruit, even under ample pollen and resource conditions. By contrast, male morph flowers were more successful in siring seeds. On average, male morph flowers sired twice as many seeds as hermaphroditic flowers. This difference in male fitness was driven by higher pollen export from male morph flowers as a result of greater pollen production and less self-pollen deposition. • The production of male morph flowers in P. incarnata appears to be a flexible adaptive mechanism to enhance male fitness, which might be especially beneficial when plants face temporary resource shortages for nurturing additional fruits.

Anther appendages of Incarvillea trigger a pollen-dispensing mechanism.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Anther appendages play diverse roles in anther dehiscence and pollen dispersal. This study aims to explore the pollen-dispensing mechanism triggered by special anther appendages in Incarvillea arguta. METHODS: Field studies were conducted to record floral characteristics, pollinator visitations, and flower-pollinator interactions. Measurements of flowers and pollinators were analysed statistically. Pollen counts following a series of floral manipulations were used to evaluate pollen dispensing efficiency and function of the anther appendages. KEY RESULTS: Field observations determined that two species of Bombus (bumble-bees) were the primary pollinators of I. arguta with a mean visiting frequency of 1.42 visitations per flower h(-1). The results display a diminishing pollen dispensing pattern; the proportion of remaining pollen removed by pollinators decreased from 27 % to 10 % and 7 % in subsequent visits. Anther appendages act as a trigger mechanism to dispense pollen. The arrangement of the anthers and appendages function to control pollen load and timing. Mechanical stimulation experiments revealed that one set of appendages is only triggered by stimulation in the direction moving into the flower, while the other set is only triggered by stimulation in the opposite direction (exiting the flower). CONCLUSIONS: The anther appendage is a pollen-dispensing trigger mechanism. The configuration of the stamens and duel trigger system has evolved to allocate pollen in allotments to enhance male function.