Imaging and optogenetic modulation of vascular mural cells in the live brain.

Mural cells (smooth muscle cells and pericytes) are integral components of brain blood vessels that play important roles in vascular formation, blood-brain barrier maintenance, and regulation of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). These cells are implicated in conditions ranging from developmental vascular disorders to age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Here we present complementary tools for cell labeling with transgenic mice and organic dyes that allow high-resolution intravital imaging of the different mural cell subtypes. We also provide detailed methodologies for imaging of spontaneous and neural activity-evoked calcium transients in mural cells. In addition, we describe strategies for single- and two-photon optogenetics that allow manipulation of the activity of individual and small clusters of mural cells. Together with measurements of diameter and flow in individual brain microvessels, calcium imaging and optogenetics allow the investigation of pericyte and smooth muscle cell physiology and their role in regulating rCBF. We also demonstrate the utility of these tools to investigate mural cells in the context of Alzheimer's disease and cerebral ischemia mouse models. Thus, these methods can be used to reveal the functional and structural heterogeneity of mural cells in vivo, and allow detailed cellular studies of the normal function and pathophysiology of mural cells in a variety of disease models. The implementation of this protocol can take from several hours to days depending on the intended applications.

Secondary metabolites from Eupenicillium parvum and their in vitro binding affinity for human opioid and cannabinoid receptors.

Phytochemical investigation of the soil microfungus Eupenicillum parvum led to the isolation of two new compounds: a chromone derivative euparvione (1) and a new mycophenolic derivative euparvilactone (2), as well as thirteen known compounds. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by means of extensive IR, NMR, and MS data and by comparison of data reported in the literature. The structure of the known compound 6 was confirmed by X-ray crystallography. Several isolated compounds were evaluated for in vitro binding assays using opioid receptors (subtypes δ, κ, and µ) and cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2). Compound 10 displayed the best selective µ-opioid receptor and CB1 receptor binding affinities showing values of 47% and 52% at a 10 µM concentration, respectively. These findings provide insight into the potential therapeutic utility of this class of compounds.

Triterpenoids.

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, protostanes, lanostanes, holostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins; 574 references are cited.

Triterpenoids.

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, protostanes, lanostanes, holostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins. The literature from January 2005 to December 2006 is reviewed and 478 references are cited.

Triterpenoids.

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, uranes, hopanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins. The literature from January to December 2004 is reviewed and 243 references are cited.

Triterpenoids.

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleannes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins. The literature from January to December 2002 is reviewed and 221 references are used.

Triterpenoids.

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, fernanes, sipholanes, isomalabaricanes, serratanes and saponins The literature from January to December 2001 is reviewed and 242 references are cited.

Triterpenoids.

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, isomalabicanes and saponins. The literature from January to December 2000 is reviewed and 277 references are cited.