Wild edible plants and their cultural significance among the Zhuang ethnic group in Fangchenggang, Guangxi, China.

INTRODUCTION: Fangchenggang is situated in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, renowned for its rich biodiversity and ethnically diverse population. The Zhuang people, constituting the largest minority group in the area, possess a wealth of traditional knowledge concerning wild edible plants (WEPs) owing to the region's favorable environment and dietary customs. With the rapid development of urbanization, tourism, and trade, the Zhuang people's food culture, including the consumption of wild edible plants, has become an attractive aspect of urban development. However, there is almost no comprehensive report available on WEPs consumed by the Zhuang people. The objectives of this study were to: (1) conduct a comprehensive ethnobotanical investigation of the WEPs among the Zhuang people in the region; (2) evaluate the cultural food significance index (CFSI) for the local communities; (3) summarize the cultural characteristics of the wild edible plants consumed, providing scientific support for the development of Fangchenggang as a sustainable and attractive tourism destination. METHODS: Ethnobotanical investigation including market surveys, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and participatory observations was conducted in Fangchenggang from January 2021 to March 2023. A total of 137 informants were selected using the snowball method. Information about WEPs, including vernacular names, food categories, parts used, mode of consumption, collecting season, and recipes, was collected and recorded. The CFSI (cultural food significance index) was calculated to identify the most culturally significant WEPs. RESULTS: A total of 163 species of wild edible plants consumed by the Zhuang people were identified, belonging to 67 families. The main categories of WEPs include wild vegetables (69) and tea substitutes (42). The most commonly consumed parts are fruits (37), followed by whole plants (33) and leaves (21), with herbaceous plants (74) being the most numerous. The availability of wild edible plants remains high throughout the year, with the peak seasons occurring in August and October, and significant abundance also noted in July and November. In the highly significant category (CFSI > 500), a total of 15 plant species were identified, which play a crucial role in the local diet. Additionally, 17 alien species have become part of the local consumption of wild plants, with 7 species listed as invasive alien species. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: This study documented 163 wild edible plant species and their associated traditional knowledge of the Zhuang people. The research identified culturally significant WEPs and analyzed their multiple uses. The historical development of wild plant consumption in Fangchenggang showed the strong influence of natural and social environments on the Zhuang ethnic group's dietary traditions. The WEPs are characterized by "sour food", "fresh ingredients" and "cold dishes", aligning with their health-oriented philosophy of "homology of medicine and food". Future prospects encompass the cultivation of economically sustainable wild edible plants (WEPs), the preservation of their traits through cross-breeding, ensuring safe consumption through research and safety evaluations, and advocating for the preservation of WEPs' culinary culture to support tourism and sustainable urban development.

The medicinal plant used in the Guangxi Fangcheng Golden Camellias national nature reserve, a coastal region in southern China.

BACKGROUNDS: Guangxi Fangcheng Golden Camellias national nature reserve, situated in Fangcheng City, Guangxi Province, China, is a coastal region renowned for its exceptional natural environment. Over time, the residents of this area have acquired extensive knowledge regarding medicinal plants, owing to their close association with the abundant flora. Our study aims to document the medicinal plants used by the local community near the Guangxi Fangcheng Golden Camellias national nature reserve. We seek to investigate the unique regional properties, cultural significance, and potential connections between medicinal plants used in surrounding villages and those sold in markets. METHODS: During 2019-2021, 96 informants, including 36 key informants, were interviewed in the study area. The snowball sampling method was used to select respondents from medicinal markets and villages. Local therapists were defaulted as key informants. A panel discussion was held on the protection and threat of medicinal plants and traditional knowledge. In this study, two quantitative indicators, relative frequency citation (RFC) and informant consensus factor (ICF), were used to analyze the traditional medicinal plants in the study area. RESULTS: According to the investigation, a total of 396 species of medicinal plants belonging to 295 genera and 116 families were recorded. From the perspective of Lifeform, herbs accounted for 38.9%, followed by shrubs. Most of the medicinal parts are whole plant (120 species, 25.59%), branches and leaves (116 species, 24.73%), and roots (101 species, 21.54%). Medicinal bath is the most commonly used therapeutic method. Among the 13 therapeutic targets recorded, rheumatic drugs accounted for the highest proportion, followed by muscular system diseases and skin-related diseases, which are closely related to local climate and livelihood. ICF shows that the use of local medicinal plants and related knowledge is very diverse, so local people have more options for treating diseases. Melicope pteleifolia, Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum, Lygodium flexuosum, Elephantopus scaber, Artemisia argyi, Plantago asiatica, Centella asiatica, Grangea maderaspatana, and Liquidambar formosana have high RFC, which are closely connected to local people's daily lives and are potentially vital to them. The wild vegetation, mostly around the nature reserve, is the primary source of medicinal materials sold in the urban medicinal market. Urban areas have fewer varieties of medicinal plants compared to villages near protected areas. However, there is consistency in their usage and application. CONCLUSION: The medicinal plants used in the villages near the Golden Camellia Nature Reserve are diverse, and the relevant traditional knowledge is relatively well preserved. The collection of medicinal materials by local people is sustainable. This study suggests that the local government should also protect relevant traditional knowledge in the decision-making process.

Lindera pulcherrima var. attenuata leaves: a nutritious and economically promising staple food in the Baiku Yao community in China.

The Baiku Yao community in China has traditionally used the Lindera pulcherrima var. attenuate (LPA) leaves as a staple food source, diverging from the common reliance on grains and plant roots worldwide. This study comprehensively analyzes LPA's nutritional composition and local usage practices through field observations and laboratory testing. Our results show that LPA contains significant levels of starch, protein, and dietary fiber and is rich in trace elements, vitamin E, and flavonoids. These findings not only support the community's traditional knowledge of LPA as a valuable food and feed source but also highlight its potential as a sustainable and innovative ingredient for new food and feed products. By filling a gap in our scientific understanding of LPA, this study may contribute to developing novel and eco-friendly agricultural practices and promote regional economic growth.

Bobai Hakka weaving: plant diversity, traditional culture, and a model for rural revitalization.

The Hakka people, a branch of the Han nationality with their own language, culture, and customs, are one of the largest immigrant groups worldwide, primarily distributed in southern China. Bobai, a county with the largest Hakka population globally, has a thriving weaving industry that is one of the local pillar industries. This study aimed to systematically analyze the plant source, product function, and development model of Bobai Hakka weaving. The study recorded 33 plant species for weaving, which belonged to 17 families and 27 genera. The weaving plants were mainly bamboo, rattan, grass, and wood, with herbs being the most commonly used (15 species, 45.5%). Most weaving plants were obtained locally (16 species, 41.0%) and from wild sources (13 species, 33.3%). Stems were the most commonly used plant parts (66.7%) in local weaving, followed by leaf sheaths, inflorescence stems, leaves, stem bark, leaf rachis, and female bracts. Additionally, wastes from crops such as wheat, rice, bananas, and corn, as well as invasive water hyacinths, were widely used as weaving materials by the local Hakka people. The products' functions ranged from household appliances, cultural and entertainment products, furniture, to production tools, reflecting a range of conventional cultural connotations. The study found that the Bobai Hakka weaving industry had integrated modern elements and additional use value to expand its market appeal. With the participation of the government, enterprises, and farmers, the Bobai weaving industry has formed a development model of "intangible cultural heritage + industry + poverty alleviation," which has become a successful case of poverty alleviation and rural revitalization.

Ethnobotanical study on herbal tea drinks in Guangxi, China.

BACKGROUND: Herbal tea drinks, different from classical Camellia beverages, are a wide variety of herbal drinks consumed for therapeutic purposes or health promotion. Herbal tea is widely consumed in Guangxi. However, the documentation on the plants for herbal tea and their related health benefits is still limited. METHODS: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in 52 villages and 21 traditional markets in Guangxi from 2016 to 2021. Semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and structured questionnaires were applied to obtain ethnobotanical information of herbal tea, in which 463 informants had participated. Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and cultural food significance index (CFSI) were used to evaluate the most culturally significant herbal tea plants, and informant consensus factor (ICF) was applied to assess the agreement among informants. RESULTS: This study recorded 155 herbal tea species belonging to 49 families. The most commonly used parts included leaf (27.61%), whole plant (22.09%), branch and leaf (19.02%), and flower (13.50%). The most frequent preparation method of herbal tea was decoction. Herbal tea was very popular in Guangxi, attributing to its therapeutic value, special odor, and good taste. There are 41 health benefits classified into eight categories. Among them, clearing heat was the most medicinal effects. Local people had high consistency in tonic, removing cold and cough, improving blood circulation, and clearing heat away. Based on CFSI values of each species, the most culturally significant herbal tea species were Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey ex A. M. Lu & Zhi Y. Zhang, Plantago asiatica L., Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Pholidota chinensis Lindl., and Morus alba L. CONCLUSION: Herbal tea is a valuable heritage that carries the local people's traditional knowledge, like health care and religious belief. The recorded herbal tea species in this study possess tremendous potential for local economic development in the future. Further research on efficacy evaluation and product development of herbal tea species is necessary.

Changes in homegardens in relocation villages, a case study in the Baiku Yao area in Southern China.

BACKGROUND: Baiku Yao is an ancient branch of the Yao people in China who have the custom of maintaining homegardens. The local government has relocated some villagers to improve their livelihood. To study the characteristics of Baiku Yao homegardens and the impact of relocation, we conducted an ethnobotanical study on homegardens in the relocated villages of Huaili and Yaozhai and in the ancient villages of Yaoshan and Duonu from January 2019 to May 2022. METHOD: Data on homegarden plants were collected through semi-structured interviews with homegarden households. A total of 4 villages (i.e., two relocated and two ancient villages) were selected for detailed investigation. In each village, 60 homegardens were chosen randomly. In addition, the RFC index and Jaccard value were used to analyze and evaluate the homegarden plants we recorded. RESULT: The study recorded a total of 213 species of homegarden plants with approximately 11 functions. Baiku Yao homegardens are small in size but rich in species and functions, and their utilization efficiency is extremely high. The Jaccard value shows that the homegarden plants in Huaili and Yaozhai have the highest similarity. Neighborhood sharing and market purchasing are the two most important sources of local homegarden plants. Additionally, medicine and food are the two most important uses of homegarden plants. Ornamental plants also play a significant part, especially in relocated villages. The comparisons indicate that the diversity of homegarden plants in the investigated ancient villages is better preserved than in relocated villages. Due to frequent exchanges between the villages and the outside world, Yaoshan Village, as an older relocated village, maintains a good traditional culture in its homegardens. As a newly relocated village, Duonu Community has developed a complicated homegarden system with only much less plant diversity. The development of local tourism has also impacted the composition of homegarden plants. The study found that plants such as Zea mays, Morus alba, and Capsicum annuum are closely related to local life and livelihood. CONCLUSION: The traditional knowledge of homegarden plants in investigated ancient villiages maintained good diversity and has been affected much less by the modernization and tourism industry development compared to the relocated villages. The composition of homegarden plants is closely connected to the local livelihood. In the future development of Baiku Yao communities, protecting homegarden plant diversity and functional diversity is crucial.

Developing long-term conservation priority planning for medicinal plants in China by combining conservation status with diversity hotspot analyses and climate change prediction.

BACKGROUND: Medicinal plants have always played an important role in the history of human health. However, the populations and sustainable use of medicinal plants have been severely affected by human activities and climate change. Little is known about the current conservation status and distribution pattern of medicinal plants. In this study, based on accurate geographical distribution information of 9756 medicinal plants, we identified diversity hotspots and conservation gaps, evaluated conservation effectiveness of nature reserves, and predicted suitable habitat areas for medicinal plants in China to provide scientific guidance for their long-term conservation and sustainable use. RESULTS: A total of 150 diversity hotspot grid cells, mainly concentrated in central and southern China, were identified. These only accounted for 5% of the total distribution area but contained 96% of the medicinal plants of the country. The hotspot grid cells included all traditional hotspot areas, but we also detected three new hotspots, namely Mufu-Lushan Mountains, Tianshan-Altai Mountains, and Changbai Mountains. The current national and provincial nature reserves protect 125 hotspot grid cells, which harbor 94% of all medicinal plants. However, 25 hotspot grid cells, distributed in the Tianshan-Altai Mountains and Hengduan Mountains, are located outside the national and provincial nature reserves. An analysis of the predicted effects of climate change indicated that the suitable habitat areas will shift from southern to northern China, and that southern China will face a considerable loss of suitable habitat areas, while the east and west parts of China will encompass remarkably more suitable habitat areas in the future. CONCLUSIONS: The current conservation networks have achieved high conservation effectiveness with regard to medicinal plants; however, the conservation gaps we identified should not be neglected, and conservation planning needs to take into account the predicted shifts of some hotspots of medicinal plants due to climate change.

Ethnobotanical study on plants used to dye traditional costumes by the Baiku Yao nationality of China.

BACKGROUND: The Baiku Yao is a branch of the Yao nationality in China. The unique dying process of traditional clothing employed by these people has distinct national characteristics, a profound impact on the production and life of local people, and important research value. For this reason, it is important to investigate and document the dyeing plants and the traditional knowledge involved in the dyeing of Baku Yao traditional clothing. METHODOLOGY: Information on dyeing plants was obtained using the free-list method and interviews with 61 Baiku Yao informants in Guangxi and Guizhou from January 2020 to August 2021. Based on the free-list method, we evaluated and screened out important plants by calculating the cognitive salience value of each plant. RESULTS: The results showed that the people of Baiku Yao have accumulated rich traditional knowledge of dyeing plants and long-term dyeing and other processes. We collected 23 species and recorded the related traditional knowledge, such as the Baiku Yao name, life form, habitat, part(s) used, application type, usage, and area used. The utilization of dyeing plants has a strong relationship with ethnic culture. The Baiku Yao uses unique anti-dyeing material (Ailanthus vilmoriniana) in the cotton dyeing process, they call it "the mother tree". As well as, the results also showed that 15 plants (65.2%) have medicinal value and can be used to treat 18 aliments, and wild plants play a very important role in the life of the Baiku Yao. CONCLUSION: These plants not only meet the color needs of the Baiku Yao people but also have health care effects, aligning with the trends toward green dyeing and the health contentiousness of modern people. This study provides a reference for the inheritance and development of Baiku Yao traditional clothing dyeing culture, will aid the identification of new natural, safe and healthy textile dyes, and is of positive significance in promoting regional economic development, national cultural inheritance, and biodiversity protection.

Taxonomic delimitation and molecular identification of clusters within the species Zanthoxylumnitidum (Rutaceae) in China.

Zanthoxylumnitidum, known as Liang-Mian-Zhen in China, is a traditional Chinese medicinal plant used to treat traumatic injury, rheumatism, paralysis, toothache, stomach ache, and venomous snake bites. Two varieties of the species have been described and three morphological types have been reported within the original variety. However, taxonomic delimitation and molecular markers for distinguishing these varieties and types within this species remain unknown. Since different populations exhibit varying chemical compositions, easy identification of intraspecific taxa is crucial. We collected 420 individuals from 38 natural populations, 3 samples of standard medicinal material, and 17 folk-medicine samples to perform classification and identification within Zanthoxylumnitidum. Four distinct genetic clusters (A, B, C, and D) were highly supported by the nuclear barcode. Two distinct chloroplast clusters (A1 and A2) were further detected within A, and three others had one-to-one correspondence with the remaining nuclear clusters. Molecular identification showed that the 17 folk samples comprised A1, A2, B, and D, while the 3 standard samples belonged to A2. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and rbcL gene are proposed as barcodes for rapid and accurate identification of the different Liang-Mian-Zhen lineages in China. This study highlights the importance of accurate taxonomic delimitation in combination with rapid and accurate molecular identification of medicinal plants.

Ethnoveterinary Survey Conducted in Baiku Yao Communities in Southwest China.

Baiku Yao is a branch of the Yao ethnic group mainly living in Guangxi and Guizhou provinces of China. They are recognized by UNESCO as an ethnic group with an intact ethnic culture. The Baiku Yao people have extensive ethnoveterinary knowledge, which they used to prevent and control various animal diseases. During the African swine fever outbreak, the livestock of the Baiku Yao community remained unaffected. We investigated ethnoveterinary knowledge among local Baiku Yao villagers. A total of 39 ethnoveterinary plant species are utilized for the treatment of various diseases. Five species, namely, Stephania kwangsiensis, Aristolochia kwangsiensis, Clerodendrum bungei, Paederia foetida, and Tetradium ruticarpum, had the highest relative frequency values. Strobilanthes cusia, Tetradium ruticarpum, and Stephania kwangsiensis are highly valued locally for treating animal plagues. The existing traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge needs to be conserved and validated scientifically.

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Mulam people in Guangxi, China.

BACKGROUND: The Mulam are an ethnic group native to Guangxi, and nearly 80% of the Mulam population lives in Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County, northern Guangxi, southern China. They have accumulated rich medicinal folk knowledge through practice and experience in their long-term struggles with disease and the harsh natural environment. However, their traditional medicinal knowledge is threatened due to a lack of written records, conservative inheritance patterns, and rapid economic development. Therefore, the investigation and documentation of medicinal plants and their associated indigenous wisdom are necessary. METHOD: Ethnobotanical data were collected from 12 villages and five communities in Luocheng County from January 2013 to April 2017. A total of 128 informants were interviewed through semistructured interviews, field observations, group discussions, and guided field walks. Quantitative indices such as use categories, preference ranking exercises, the informant consensus factor (ICF), and the fidelity level (FL) were used to evaluate the importance of medicinal plant species. Additionally, group discussions were conducted about the conservation of and threats to medicinal plants and traditional knowledge. RESULTS: A total of 456 medicinal plant species from 350 genera and 132 families were recorded and documented in our ethnobotanical investigation. Most of them (335 species, 73.47%) were obtained from wild habitats. Most of the documented species (246) were herbaceous (54%), followed by shrubs, with 76 species (17%), lianas, with 75 species (16%), and trees, with 59 species (13%). The most common method of administration was oral administration, which was used for 390 species (62.70%). The most common method of preparation was decoction (316 species, 54.11%). The plants were used to treat 312 human diseases in 12 disease categories, and most of the categories had a high ICF value. The highest ICF value was recorded for gynecological ailments (0.92), followed by nervous and psychosomatic problems (0.90) and digestive system diseases (0.89). Traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants are under threat due to conservative inheritance processes and anthropogenic pressures for various reasons. CONCLUSION: A rich diversity of medicinal plants is distributed in the Mulam area, and these plants play an important role in healthcare among the Mulam people. Mulam people are skilled in using the plants in their surroundings to treat diseases in their daily lives. However, their traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants are greatly threatened by rapid economic development for various reasons. Thus, policies and practices for the conservation of medicinal plants and the associated traditional knowledge are necessary.

Plant diversity in herbal tea and its traditional knowledge in Qingtian County, Zhejiang Province, China.

Herbal teas composed of locally occurring plant species have long been used as the primary form of health care in Qingtian County, Zhejiang Province, China. However, large-scale emigration overseas and an aging population threaten the conservation of traditional knowledge of these herbal teas. Traditional knowledge about the plants used for these herbal teas is not well documented in Qingtian, despite their widespread use. The aim of this study was to assess the plant-cultural diversity of plants used as herbal teas, and to point out the prospective value of herbal teas used by Qingtian people. This study was conducted using semi-structured interviews, as well as field and market surveys. Forty-three local informants were interviewed. We recorded plant resources, plant parts used, local names, and medicinal uses. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including cognitive salience (CS), frequency of citation (FC), index of informant consensus (Fic) and use value (UV), were calculated to analyze the level of representativeness and relative importance of plants used in herbal teas. One hundred and twenty-nine species belonging to 75 families and 113 genera were reported to be used in herbal tea, with Compositae being the richest family. Whole plants are most commonly used to make herbal teas (66.7%). In this study, informants reported that 92.2% of plant species used in herbal teas are wild. The most utilized herbal preparation form is dry/fresh. Informants reported that herbal teas are used to treat 31 ailments. Our results show that the highest representativeness, based on CS and FC, was recorded for species Actinidia eriantha. Based on UV, the top five most used species are Goodyera schlechtendaliana, Plantago asiatica, Prunella vulgaris, Lophatherum gracile and Leonurus japonicus. The highest Fic was cited for dental medicine. This study helps document the status of current herbal teas in Qingtian. The use value and traditional knowledge of herbal teas have provided basic data for further research focused on bioactivity studies and sustainable utilization of the most important species.