Integrative health care in a hospital setting: communication patterns between CAM and biomedical practitioners.

Research in the area of collaboration between complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and biomedical practitioners often describes their relationships as fraught with power struggles. This paper explores communication among the various stakeholders at an integrative health clinic for artists located in a university hospital. Qualitative research methods were used, in-depth interviews and semi-structured focus groups, to facilitate the gathering of information about patterns of communication among stakeholders involved at the clinic. The findings describe the challenges to communication and integration at the clinic. The lack of communication is described as a scheduling issue, or lack of consistent presence of CAM practitioners, and a lack of formal methods of communication (patient charting). The consequences of these gaps were felt mostly by the CAM practitioners, as their scope of practice was not well understood by other practitioners. CAM practitioners stated that this had a direct effect on their confidence levels. CAM practitioners were relegated to the periphery of the hospital in their role as part-time, contract employees. Their lack of consistent presence at the clinic lead to a lack of understanding of their scope of practice, hence, a lack of referrals from other health-care practitioners, particularly those who were biomedically-oriented.

How far can complementary and alternative medicine go? The case of chiropractic and homeopathy.

This paper examines the efforts of two complementary and alternative occupations, chiropractors and homeopaths, to move from the margins to the mainstream in health care in the province of Ontario. We use a variety of theoretical perspectives to understand how health occupations professionalize: the trait functionalist framework, social closure, the system of professions, and the concept of countervailing powers. The research traces the strategies that the leaders of the two groups are employing, as well as the resources they are able to marshal. These are analyzed within the context of the larger institutional and cultural environment. The data are derived from in-person interviews with 16 leaders (10 chiropractic and 6 homeopathic) identified through professional associations, teaching institutions and informants from the groups. The responses were analyzed with qualitative content analysis. We also used archival materials to document what the leaders were telling us. The data revealed four main strategies: (1) improving the quality of educational programs, (2) elevating standards of practice, (3) developing more peer reviewed research, and (4) increasing group cohesion. Although both groups identified similar strategies, the chiropractors were bolstered by more resources as well as state sanctioned regulation. The efforts of the homeopaths were constrained by scarce resources and the absence of self-regulation. In both cases the lack of strong structural support from government and the established health professions played an important role in limiting what was possible. In the future, it may be to the state's advantage to modify the overall shape of health care to include alternative paradigms of healing along with conventional medical care. Such a shift would put complementary and alternative medicine occupations in a better position to advance professionally and become formal elements of the established health care system.

The role of the state in the social inclusion of complementary and alternative medical occupations.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the views of government spokespersons regarding the efforts of five complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) groups (chiropractic, traditional Chinese medicine/acupuncture, naturopathy, homeopathy and Reiki) to take their place in the formal health care system. DESIGN: In this small scale, exploratory study, we conducted in-depth interviews with 10 key government officials at the federal (5), provincial (4) and municipal (1) levels. We used qualitative techniques such as constant comparison to describe and explain their responses to three main questions: (1) What should be the role of the state in the professionalization of CAM? (2) Is there a legitimate place for CAM groups in the formal health care system? and (3) Should CAM services be integrated with conventional medical care? SETTING: Ontario, Canada. RESULTS: The findings identify a fundamental tension between the various levels of government. Their mandate to protect the public comes into conflict with the obligation to respond to consumer pressure for CAM. Safety, efficacy and cost-containment were the chief explanations given for the government's slowness to catch up to consumers. They also mentioned fears of rising health care costs and the lack of cohesion among and between CAM groups as barriers to legitimacy and integration. CONCLUSION: Realizing the professional aspirations of CAM practitioners will depend on the outcome of a political contest between the public, the state and the established health care professions.

Responses of established healthcare to the professionalization of complementary and alternative medicine in Ontario.

This paper examines the reactions of leaders of established health professions in Ontario, Canada to the efforts of selected complementary and alternative (CAM) occupational groups (chiropractors, naturopaths, acupuncture/traditional Chinese doctors, homeopaths and Reiki practitioners) to professionalize. Stakeholder theory provides the framework for analysis of competing interests among the various groups in the healthcare system. The data are derived from personal interviews with 10 formal leaders from medicine, nursing, physiotherapy, clinical nutrition and public health. We conceived of these leaders as one group of stakeholders, with both common and conflicting interests. The findings demonstrate that these stakeholders are reluctant to endorse the professionalization of CAM. They propose a series of strategies to contain the acceptance of CAM groups, such as insisting on scientific evidence of safety and efficacy, resisting integration of CAM with conventional medicine and opposing government support for research and education. These strategies serve to protect the dominant position of medicine and its allied professions, and to maintain existing jurisdictional boundaries within the healthcare system. The popular support for CAM will require that health professional stakeholders continue to address the challenges this poses, and at the same time protect their position at the apex of the healthcare pyramid.

Moving forward? Complementary and alternative practitioners seeking self-regulation.

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) occupations continue to struggle towards achieving professional status, especially in the form of statutory regulation. Many consider professional status a worthwhile goal for CAM occupations, yet it is a process fraught with tensions. In this paper we present in-depth interview data from the leaders of three CAM groups (naturopaths, traditional Chinese medicine practitioners acupuncturists, and homeopaths) in Ontario, Canada that demonstrate four main strategies used by these groups to professionalize. The strategies discussed are related to how the knowledge base of each group is organised and transmitted. These strategies include: improving educational standards, improving practice standards, engaging in peer-reviewed research and increasing group cohesion. At the core of these strategies is the demarcation of who is qualified to practice, and a signalling to 'outsiders', such as medicine and the government, that practitioners are qualified and legitimate. Across the three groups, the leaders referred to the inclusion of medical science as a basis for distinguishing between 'science' and 'non-science' as well as who should practice and who should not. We highlight how internal battles over the infusion of medical science into the knowledge base are part of the process for establishing legitimacy for the three CAM groups in our study. We end with a brief discussion of the implications of these internal battles over medical science knowledge for the future of CAM groups.

Complementary and alternative medicine: how do we know if it works?

Using a sociological viewpoint, this paper examines the range of definitions for complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and discusses the evidence base for its efficacy and safety. The question of what constitutes evidence is considered from various perspectives: biomedical, CAM, consumers and practitioners. The authors conclude that all these perspectives are required in order to fully understand the appeal of CAM in Canadian society's search for appropriate healthcare. Most important, the complexity of methods for assessing the evidence about CAM is addressed. An inclusive approach is urged that goes well beyond randomized clinical trials. Policy recommendations are made in three areas: research, regulation and funding.

Ethical dimensions in the borderland between conventional and complementary/alternative medicine.

Consumer enthusiasm for complementary and alternative medicine presents complex challenges for conventional Western biomedically dominated health care systems and for those who practice within them. In particular, this trend forces new ethical dilemmas related to how we create consensus about the nature of ethical clinical practice and what constitutes evidence sufficient for public health policy. In this paper, we examine the historical context into which complementary and alternative medicine has been introduced, and consider the ethical and scientific challenges with which it confronts mainstream health systems.