Mosquitocidal activities of Chenopodium botrys whole plant n-hexane extract against Culex quinquefasciatus / Atividades mosquitocidas do extrato de n-hexano de planta inteira de Chenopodium botrys contra Culex quinquefasciatus

Abstract This research aimed to investigate various mosquitocidal activities of Chenopodium botrys whole- plant n-hexane extract against Culex quinquefasciatus. The extract showed remarkable larvicidal, pupicidal, adulticidal, oviposition deterrent and adult emergence inhibitory activities against Cx. quinquefasciatus. During the larvicidal and pupicidal activities, the 24-hour lethal concentration (LC50) of extract against 2nd instar larvae, 4th instar larvae and pupae were 324.6, 495.6 and 950.8 ppm, respectively. During the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) bottle bioassay for adulticidal activity, the median knockdown times (KDT50) at 1.25% concentration was 123.4 minutes. During the filter paper impregnation bioassay for adulticidal activity, the KDT50 value at 0.138 mg/cm2 concentration was 48.6 minutes. The extract was fractionated into 14 fractions through silica gel column chromatography which were then combined into six fractions on the basis of similar retention factor (Rf) value. These fractions were screened for adulticidal activity by applying CDC bottle bioassay. The fraction obtained through 60:40 to 50:50% n-hexanes-chloroform mobile phase with 0.5 Rf value showed 100% adulticidal activity at 0.2% concentration. During oviposition deterrent activity, the highest concentration (1000 ppm) showed 71.3 ± 4.4% effective repellence and 0.6 ± 0.1 oviposition activity index. During adult emergence inhibition activity, the median emergence inhibition (EI50) value was 312.3 ppm. From the outcome of the present investigation, it is concluded that the n-hexane extract of C. botrys whole- plant possesses strong larvicidal, pupicidal, adulticidal, oviposition deterrent and adult emergence inhibitory activities against Cx. quinquefasciatus.

Resumo Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo investigar várias atividades mosquitocidas do extrato n-hexano de planta inteira de Chenopodium botrys contra Culex quinquefasciatus. O extrato mostrou atividades larvicida, pupicida, adulticida, dissuasora de oviposição e inibidora da emergência de adultos contra a Cx. quinquefasciatus. Durante as atividades larvicida e pupicida, a concentração letal de 24 horas (CL50) do extrato contra larvas de 2º estádio, larvas de 4º estádio e pupa foi de 324,6, 495,6 e 950,8 ppm, respectivamente. Durante o bioensaio com frasco do CDC (Centros para Controle e Prevenção de Doenças) para adulticida, o tempo médio de desativação (KDT50) na concentração de 1,25% foi de 123,4 minutos. Durante o bioensaio de impregnação com papel de filtro para a atividade adulticida do extrato, o valor KDT50 na concentração de 0,138 mg / cm2 foi de 48,6 minutos. O extrato foi fracionado em 14 frações através de cromatografia em coluna de gel de sílica que foram então combinadas em seis frações com base em um valor de fator de retenção (Rf) semelhante. Essas frações foram selecionadas quanto à atividade adulticida por meio da aplicação do bioensaio com garrafa do CDC. A fração obtida através da fase móvel de n-hexanos-clorofórmio 60:40% a 50:50% com valor de 0,5 Rf apresentou atividade adulticida de 100% na concentração de 0,2%. Durante a atividade de dissuasão da oviposição, a maior concentração de extrato (1000 ppm) apresentou repelência efetiva de 71,3 ± 4,4% e índice de atividade de oviposição de 0,6 ± 0,1. Durante a atividade de inibição da emergência de adultos, o valor médio de inibição da emergência (EI50) foi de 312,3 ppm. A partir do resultado da presente investigação, conclui-se que o extrato de n-hexano da planta inteira de C. botrys possui fortes atividades larvicida, pupicida, adulticida, dissuasora da oviposição e inibidora da emergência de adultos contra a Cx. quinquefasciatus.

Detection of microorganisms with antibacterial activities from different industrial wastes and GC-MS analysis of crude microbial extract / Detecção de microrganismos com atividades antibacterianas de diferentes resíduos industriais e análise por GC-MS do extrato microbiano bruto

Abstract Many soil microorganisms' i.e., bacteria and fungi produce secondary metabolites called antibiotics. These are used for the treatment of some of the bacterial, fungal and protozoal diseases of humans. There is a need for isolation of a broad spectrum of antibiotics from microorganisms due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance. In the present study two antibiotic producing bacteria Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus cereus were isolated from pharmaceutical and poultry feed industry of Hattar, Haripur Pakistan. Total 10 waste samples were collected from different industries (Marble, Ghee, Soap, Mineral, Steel, Poultry Feed, Pharmaceutical, Qarshi, Cosmetic and Glass). Thirty-three bacterial strains were isolated from industrial wastes of these ten different industries. Fourteen out of thirty-three bacterial strains exhibited antimicrobial activities against at least one of the test microbes considered in this study including Escherchia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi. The bacteria were isolated by standard serial dilution spread plate technique. Morphological characterization of the isolates was done by Gram staining. Nine bacterial isolates out of fourteen were initially identified as B. cereus and five as K. pneumoniae through biochemical characterization. The antibacterial activities were tested by well diffusion method. Maximum number of antibiotic producing bacteria were isolated from pharmaceutical and poultry feed industry based on the results of primary screening, the most potential isolates S9, S19, S20, S22 and S23 were selected for secondary screening. The maximum activity against E. coli and S. aureus was recorded by bacterial isolate S19 i.e zones of inhibition of 6.5mm and 9mm while S20 showed 7.5mm and 6mm zones respectively. Molecular identification was carried out on the basis of 16S rRNA sequence analysis. Finally, the isolates were identified as B. cereus accession number LC538271and K. pneumoniae accession number MT078679. Analysis of bacterial extract S20 through GC-MS indicated the presence of 8 compounds of diverse nature and structure. Present study suggests that wastes of pharmaceutical and poultry feed industry may have antibiotic producing bacteria. These bacteria could be utilized for the production of antibiotics. B. cereus and K. pneumoniae isolated from wastes of poultry feed and pharmaceutical industries have the potential to produce antibiotics and could be used to control the microbial growth.

Resumo Muitos microrganismos do solo, ou seja, bactérias e fungos produzem metabólitos secundários chamados antibióticos. Eles são usados ​​para tratamento de algumas doenças bacterianas, fúngicas e protozoárias em humanos. Há necessidade de isolamento de um amplo espectro de antibióticos de microrganismos devido ao surgimento de resistência aos antibióticos. No presente estudo, duas bactérias produtoras de antibióticos, Klebsiella pneumoniae e Bacillus cereus, foram isoladas da indústria farmacêutica e de ração avícola de Hattar, Haripur, Paquistão. Um total de 10 amostras de resíduos foi coletado de diferentes indústrias (mármore, ghee, sabão, mineral, aço, ração para aves, farmacêutica, Qarshi, cosmética e vidro). Trinta e três cepas bacterianas foram isoladas de resíduos industriais dessas dez diferentes indústrias. Quatorze das 33 cepas bacterianas exibiram atividades antimicrobianas contra pelo menos um dos micróbios de teste considerados neste estudo, incluindo Escherchia coli, Staphylococcus aureus e Salmonella typhi. As bactérias foram isoladas pela técnica de placa de diluição em série padrão. A caracterização morfológica dos isolados foi feita por coloração de gram. Nove isolados bacterianos de 14 foram inicialmente identificados como B. cereus e cinco como K. pneumoniae por meio de caracterização bioquímica. As atividades antibacterianas foram testadas pelo método de difusão em poço. O número máximo de bactérias produtoras de antibióticos foi isolado da indústria farmacêutica e de ração avícola com base nos resultados da triagem primária, os isolados mais potenciais S9, S19, S20, S22 e S23 foram selecionados para a triagem secundária. A atividade máxima contra E. coli e S. aureus foi registrada pelo isolado bacteriano S19, ou seja, zonas de inibição de 6,5 mm e 9 mm, enquanto S20 mostrou zonas de 7,5 mm e 6 mm, respectivamente. A identificação molecular foi realizada com base na análise da sequência 16S rRNA. Finalmente, os isolados foram identificados como B. cereus número de acesso LC538271 e K. pneumoniae número de acesso MT078679. A análise do extrato bacteriano S20 por meio de GC-MS indicou a presença de oito compostos de natureza e estrutura diversas. O presente estudo sugere que resíduos da indústria farmacêutica e de ração para aves podem conter bactérias produtoras de antibióticos. Essas bactérias podem ser utilizadas para a produção de antibióticos B. cereus e K. pneumoniae isolados de resíduos de rações de aves e indústrias farmacêuticas têm potencial para produzir antibióticos e podem ser usados ​​para controlar o crescimento microbiano.

Mosquitocidal activities of Chenopodium botrys whole plant n-hexane extract against Culex quinquefasciatus.

This research aimed to investigate various mosquitocidal activities of Chenopodium botrys whole- plant n-hexane extract against Culex quinquefasciatus. The extract showed remarkable larvicidal, pupicidal, adulticidal, oviposition deterrent and adult emergence inhibitory activities against Cx. quinquefasciatus. During the larvicidal and pupicidal activities, the 24-hour lethal concentration (LC50) of extract against 2nd instar larvae, 4th instar larvae and pupae were 324.6, 495.6 and 950.8 ppm, respectively. During the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) bottle bioassay for adulticidal activity, the median knockdown times (KDT50) at 1.25% concentration was 123.4 minutes. During the filter paper impregnation bioassay for adulticidal activity, the KDT50 value at 0.138 mg/cm2 concentration was 48.6 minutes. The extract was fractionated into 14 fractions through silica gel column chromatography which were then combined into six fractions on the basis of similar retention factor (Rf) value. These fractions were screened for adulticidal activity by applying CDC bottle bioassay. The fraction obtained through 60:40 to 50:50% n-hexanes-chloroform mobile phase with 0.5 Rf value showed 100% adulticidal activity at 0.2% concentration. During oviposition deterrent activity, the highest concentration (1000 ppm) showed 71.3 ± 4.4% effective repellence and 0.6 ± 0.1 oviposition activity index. During adult emergence inhibition activity, the median emergence inhibition (EI50) value was 312.3 ppm. From the outcome of the present investigation, it is concluded that the n-hexane extract of C. botrys whole- plant possesses strong larvicidal, pupicidal, adulticidal, oviposition deterrent and adult emergence inhibitory activities against Cx. quinquefasciatus.

Detection of microorganisms with antibacterial activities from different industrial wastes and GC-MS analysis of crude microbial extract.

Many soil microorganisms' i.e., bacteria and fungi produce secondary metabolites called antibiotics. These are used for the treatment of some of the bacterial, fungal and protozoal diseases of humans. There is a need for isolation of a broad spectrum of antibiotics from microorganisms due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance. In the present study two antibiotic producing bacteria Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus cereus were isolated from pharmaceutical and poultry feed industry of Hattar, Haripur Pakistan. Total 10 waste samples were collected from different industries (Marble, Ghee, Soap, Mineral, Steel, Poultry Feed, Pharmaceutical, Qarshi, Cosmetic and Glass). Thirty-three bacterial strains were isolated from industrial wastes of these ten different industries. Fourteen out of thirty-three bacterial strains exhibited antimicrobial activities against at least one of the test microbes considered in this study including Escherchia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi. The bacteria were isolated by standard serial dilution spread plate technique. Morphological characterization of the isolates was done by Gram staining. Nine bacterial isolates out of fourteen were initially identified as B. cereus and five as K. pneumoniae through biochemical characterization. The antibacterial activities were tested by well diffusion method. Maximum number of antibiotic producing bacteria were isolated from pharmaceutical and poultry feed industry based on the results of primary screening, the most potential isolates S9, S19, S20, S22 and S23 were selected for secondary screening. The maximum activity against E. coli and S. aureus was recorded by bacterial isolate S19 i.e zones of inhibition of 6.5mm and 9mm while S20 showed 7.5mm and 6mm zones respectively. Molecular identification was carried out on the basis of 16S rRNA sequence analysis. Finally, the isolates were identified as B. cereus accession number LC538271and K. pneumoniae accession number MT078679. Analysis of bacterial extract S20 through GC-MS indicated the presence of 8 compounds of diverse nature and structure. Present study suggests that wastes of pharmaceutical and poultry feed industry may have antibiotic producing bacteria. These bacteria could be utilized for the production of antibiotics. B. cereus and K. pneumoniae isolated from wastes of poultry feed and pharmaceutical industries have the potential to produce antibiotics and could be used to control the microbial growth.

Effects of dietary supplementation of spices on forage degradability, ruminal fermentation, in vivo digestibility, growth performance and nitrogen balance in Black Bengal goat.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of spices on forage utilization and nitrogen (N) emission using in vitro and in vivo approach. A 6 × 5 factorial triplicate arrangement was used to assess the in vitro degradability of rice straw with control (without spices) and individual (40 mg/g rice straw) spices (cumin, coriander, clove, black cumin, turmeric) at five different incubation times. In vitro dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM) degradability of rice straw were highest in presence of spices except for clove. Clove significantly reduced the total volatile fatty acids concentration, molar proportion of acetate and propionate ratio, but increased propionate production. Acetate and butyrate production were not affected by treatments. The ammonia-nitrogen concentration was lowest for clove and turmeric compared to other spices. Rumen pH was unchanged but gradually decreased over the incubation period. For in vivo study, 12 bucks with average live weight 7.65 ± 0.19 kg were assigned to a completely randomized design with three treatments and four replicates for a 28-day period. Bucks were fed a total mixed ration without (0 g/kg DM) or with (2.5, 7.5 g/kg DM) clove supplementation. DM intake, body weight and apparent total tract digestibility of crude protein (CP) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) were not affected by increasing dietary doses of clove but tended (p = .09) to increase DM and OM digestibility. The urinary N and urine urea N concentration of bucks decreased linearly with incremental doses of clove diet. In contrary, clove supplementation had positive effects on plasma urea N and retained N in bucks. We concluded that though some spices had positive effects on ruminal digestion and fermentation, the dosage level assessed in the current study (up to 7.5 g/kg DM clove) can be promoted as an effective dietary approach to mitigate N losses in bucks.

Rutin prevents cognitive impairments by ameliorating oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in rat model of sporadic dementia of Alzheimer type.

The objective of the present study was to assess the neuroprotective role of rutin (vitamin P) and delineate the mechanism of action. Recent evidence indicates that rutin exhibits antioxidant potential and protects the brain against various oxidative stressors. More precisely, the aim of the present study was to examine the modulating impacts of rutin against cognitive deficits and oxidative damage in intracerebroventricular-streptozotocin (ICV-STZ)-infused rats. Rats were injected bilaterally with ICV-STZ (3 mg/kg), whereas sham rats received the same volume of vehicle. After 2 weeks of streptozotocin (STZ) infusion, rats were tested for cognitive performance using Morris water maze tasks and thereafter euthanized for further biochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical studies. Rutin pretreatment (25 mg/kg, orally, once daily for 3 weeks) significantly attenuated thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), activity of poly ADP-ribosyl polymerase, and nitrite level and decreased level of reduced glutathione (GSH) and activities of its dependent enzymes (glutathione peroxidase [GPx] and glutathione reductase [GR]) and catalase in the hippocampus of ICV-STZ rats. ICV-STZ rats showed significant cognitive deficits, which was improved significantly by rutin supplementation. The results indicate that rutin attenuates STZ-induced inflammation by reducing the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), interleukin-8 (IL-8), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nuclear factor-kB, and preventing the morphological changes in hippocampus. The study thereby suggests the effectiveness of rutin in preventing cognitive deficits and might be beneficial for the treatment of sporadic dementia of Alzheimer type (SDAT).

Kala azar in Nepal: estimating the effects of socioeconomic factors on disease incidence.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of Kala Azar (KA), a neglected tropical infectious disease, describes the pattern of disease, but is not principally concerned with explaining its causes. The transmission of the infectious diseases is determined by the complex interactions between environmental and socioeconomic factors. Environmental factors are predicted to have a significant impact on disease transmission; moreover, socioeconomic factors modify the magnitude and direction of these impacts. A number of studies have examined possible determinants of KA in endemic countries of the world; however, most of them appear to have used either qualitative approaches or subjective speculations. None of the studies indicates in quantitative terms the potential effects of poverty-alleviation programs on the incidence of KA. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data related to characteristics of community were collected from primary as well as secondary sources. Underlying socioeconomic determinants on KA incidence were estimated by exploiting a linear multiple regression. RESULTS: The multivariate analysis has confirmed that burden of KA is disproportionately borne by vulnerable and marginalized groups. KA is most entrenched in the poorest communities. Elimination of KA is directly related to poverty alleviation because if the poverty incidence reduces by 10 percent, it will lead to reduction of KA incidence by 16 percent. The strategy for disease control or elimination should shift from traditional disease-centered approaches to a holistic approach that can break the links between poverty and KA. CONCLUSIONS: To achieve the target of elimination of KA in Nepal by 2015, the poverty incidence should be reduced from existing poverty 27 percent to at least 16 percent in KA endemic areas. The association between poverty and KA reflects causality running in both directions: poverty multiplies KA incidence and KA pushes poor into marginal poor or further poverty.

Syntheses and evaluation of glucosyl aryl thiosemicarbazide and glucosyl thiosemicarbazone derivatives as antioxidant and anti-dyslipidemic agents.

A series of N-per-O-acetyl-glucosyl arylthiosemicarbazide and thiosemicarbazone derivatives have been synthesized and evaluated for their in vivo anti-dyslipidemic and in vitro antioxidant activities. Among 16 compounds tested, 3 compounds showed potent anti-dyslipidemic activity and 6 compounds showed potent antioxidant and scavenger of oxygen free radicals activity.

The impact of political context upon the health policy process in Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Analysis of the political context is important for the understanding of a health policy and its success, because contextual factors may significantly influence the health policy process and health. This article describes how the political context in Pakistan influences the health policy process. METHODS: We used qualitative research methods based on document analysis and interviews of relevant actors in analysing the impact of the political context on the health policy process. Document analysis included policy documents and official reports of the health ministries, health-related departments and international agencies. Interviewees included relevant actors involved in the health policy process at local, provincial, national and international levels. RESULTS: Pakistan has experienced unbalanced power structures and frequent changes in government, which has disturbed health resources and has resulted in a centralized health system that hinders wider participation and disrupts health policy-making, planning and implementation. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that the political context has had a negative influence on the health policy process in Pakistan.

Red blood cell membrane essential fatty acid metabolism in early psychotic patients following antipsychotic drug treatment.

A role of indices of oxidative stress, oxidative injury, and abnormal membrane phospholipid, specifically the phospholipid essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPUFAs) metabolism has been suggested based on studies in separate groups of patients with or without medication. The current study investigated the relationship between these biochemical measures in first-episode psychotic patients (N=16) at baseline and after 6 months of antipsychotic treatment (N=5 each with risperidone and olanzapine) and compared them to matched normal subjects. The indices of oxidative stress included: antioxidant enzymes; superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase; and the oxidative injury as the levels of plasma lipid peroxides. The key membrane EPUFA's been; linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, nervonic acid, docosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Furthermore, the changes in these biochemical measures were correlated with clinical symptomatology. Data indicated that, at baseline, reduced levels of antioxidant enzymes were associated with increased plasma lipid peroxides and reduced membrane EPUFAs, particularly omega-3 fatty acids. Furthermore, these biochemical measures normalized after 6 months of antipsychotic treatment. Parallel-improved psychopathology indicated that membrane EPUFA status might be partly affected by oxidative damage, which together may contribute to the pathophysiology and thereby, psychopathology of schizophrenia. These data also support the augmentation of antipsychotic treatment by supplementation with a combination of antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids.

Zinc status of breastfed and formula-fed infants of different gestational ages.

Zinc status in 186 full term and preterm infants was determined at birth, and 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age along with determination of zinc levels in breast or formula milk to find out if routine zinc supplements are needed during infancy. The leukocyte and plasma zinc levels in all breastfed infants were high at birth and gradually declined reaching lowest values by 4-6 months of age, and improved to normal levels by 9 months following weaning. The preterm infants however, had significantly (P < 0.05) higher leukocyte zinc (213.6 +/- 46.91 micrograms/10(10) cells) at birth compared to term infants. Colostrum of all the mothers had higher zinc concentrations which declined to significantly lower levels in breastmilk by 4-6 months of lactation, corresponding to the age when the breastfed infants had lower zinc levels. The improvement of the levels to normal after weaning suggests that the fall in zinc status during early infancy could be a transient phenomenon which could be reversed by proper weaning, thus strengthening the plea for timely food supplements rather than the need for single nutrient supplements. Formula-fed full term infants had significantly lower leukocyte zinc levels (49.3 +/- 2.59 micrograms/10(10) cells) at 3 months of age compared to breastfed infants of the same age (92.8 +/- 14.04 micrograms/10(10) cells). Even these infants improved their zinc status after weaning on par with breastfed infants. The functional significance of their transient, but low zinc values during early infancy needs to be investigated.

Effect of factor Xa inhibitors on thrombin formation and complement and neutrophil activation during in vitro extracorporeal circulation.

BACKGROUND: Even when large doses of heparin are administered during cardiopulmonary bypass, thrombin is produced. Thrombin is a powerful protease that is associated with the thrombotic and bleeding complications of open heart surgery and is produced by cleavage of prothrombin by factor Xa. This study assessed the ability of a specific inhibitor of factor Xa, recombinant tick anticoagulant peptide (rTAP), alone or in combination with standard heparin and a low-molecular-weight heparin, enoxaparin, to suppress thrombin formation and activity during in vitro extracorporeal circulation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fresh, anticoagulated human blood was recirculated for 2 hours in an extracorporeal membrane oxygenator perfusion circuit at 37 degrees C. Four anticoagulant protocols were evaluated; porcine heparin (3.75 U/mL); enoxaparin (17.5 U/mL); rTAP (4 mumol/L); and porcine heparin plus rTAP (2 mumol/L). Blood samples were obtained for analysis from the donor, after anticoagulation, and after 5, 30, 60, and 120 minutes of recirculation. There were no significant differences between groups in platelet count, response to adenosine diphosphate, or prothrombin fragment (F1.2) production. rTAP plus heparin reduced beta-thromboglobulin release; fibrinopeptide A concentrations were significantly higher with rTAP alone. Enoxaparin strongly and significantly inhibited complement C5b9 production and neutrophil elastase release and was associated with significantly increased concentrations of C1-C1 inhibitor and kallikrein-C1 inhibitor complexes. CONCLUSIONS: rTAP does not reduce thrombin formation or activity during in vitro extracorporeal circulation. Enoxaparin markedly inhibits formation of the complement membrane attack complex and neutrophil elastase release, possibly by accelerating C1 inhibitor activity.

Role of zinc supplementation in the rehabilitation of severely malnourished children.

A double-blind study was conducted to assess the role of zinc supplementation in the rehabilitation of severely malnourished children. Thirty-three children with severe protein-energy malnutrition received either 40 mg of zinc as zinc sulphate or a placebo during their rehabilitation in addition to the diet containing about 700 kJ and 3-4 g protein per kg body weight/day. Their clinical and biochemical responses were examined. Clinical response and serum albumin synthesis were found to be similar in both the groups. The leukocyte (micrograms/10(10) cells) and plasma zinc levels (micrograms/dl) showed a significant (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01) increase from 46.9 +/- 5.490 to 107.2 +/- 13.224 and 80.4 +/- 9.972 to 107.5 +/- 11.822, respectively, after zinc supplementation. The placebo group also showed a significant (P < 0.025) increase in leukocyte zinc from 45.7 +/- 4.409 to 70.9 +/- 8.414. However, the plasma zinc in the placebo group fell from 83.6 +/- 10.363 to 68.2 +/- 7.031. Plasma copper showed a significant improvement in both zinc supplemented (P < 0.01) and placebo (P < 0.025) groups. The results indicate that zinc supplementation along with the diet would result in rapid restoration of zinc status, though there is no effect on the weight gain or other responses.

Impact of the long term supply of iodized salt to the endemic goitre area.

The study was designed to assess the impact of the supplementation levels of iodine in salt supplied since the last 12 years to Gilgit and Hunza, an endemic goitre area of Pakistan. The overall prevalence of visible goitre is reduced from 61.36% to 4.68%. Results of urinary excretion of iodine (UEI) indicate severe to mild iodine deficiency among 70.41% of the randomly surveyed households. Severely deficient are 3%, moderate 29.54% and mild 37.87%, criteria of UEI being less than 2.0 micrograms/dl, 2-5 micrograms/dl and 5-10 micrograms/dl respectively. Levels of iodine supplementation in 267 iodized salt samples at production (n = 128) and consumption (n = 139) points are compared with a mean +/- SD are 70.86 +/- 29.73 ppm and 37.24 +/- 20.47 ppm respectively, representing 566.8 +/- 237.8 micrograms and 297.9 +/- 163.7 micrograms of iodine per 8.0 gram of salt. It is suggested to replace common salt with iodized salt in the goitre area to ensure the use by all households and quality control measures for iodination of salt should strictly be adhered so that uniform and consistent supply of iodine be ensured. The magnitude of contributory factors other than iodine deficiency, i.e., environmental and hereditary should be monitored and considered when levels of iodine supplementation are adjusted.

Preliminary clinical study of sharbat - e - unsul in zeequn - nafas - balghami.

Sharbat-e-Unsul, a Unani medicine was found to cure zeequn - nafasbalghami or "difficulty in breathing due to narrowing or obstruction of air passage". The drug did not cause any adverse effect.

Insulin like activity in (-) epicatechin.

Water extract of the bark of plant of Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb is used as an antidiabetic drug in indigenous medicine in India. (-) Epicatechin, its active principle, has been found to be insulinogenic. The present in vitro study reports some insulin like activities of (-) epicatechin. Like insulin, (-) epicatechin stimulates oxygen uptake in fat cells and tissue slices of various organs, increases glycogen content of rat diaphragm in dose-dependent manner with corresponding increase in U14-C glucose uptake, and inhibits theophylline induced lipolysis in isolated fat pads in dose-dependent manner. Experiments on competitive binding of 125I-insulin and (-) epicatechin to liver cell plasma membrane indicate that insulin does not share binding site with (-) epicatechin. (-) Epicatechin at a concentration of up to 1 mM does not effect the release of glucagon from the islets in vitro. Thus, (-) epicatechin has insulinogenic as well as insulin like properties.

On lying fallow: an aspect of leisure.

The capacity for lying fallow is discussed as a nonconflictual affective state and as a function of the process of personalization and growth. The qualities and achievements of the fallow mood are indicated, as are the factors on which this state is dependent.