Descriptive ethnobotanical studies are needed for the rescue operation of documenting traditional knowledge.

In this essay, I claim that the primary aim of ethnobiological research is now to document disappearing traditional knowledge. This is an absolute priority due to the rate at which biocultural biodiversity in the world is disappearing. Rather than diverting our efforts into inflating the theoretical part of ethnobotany, we should concentrate on knowledge documentation to facilitate its circulation in the communties that hold it or at least to preserve it for future generations, even in the static form of databases or video recordings.

Plants and Other Materials Used for Dyeing in the Present Territory of Poland, Belarus and Ukraine according to Rostafinski's Questionnaire from 1883.

BACKGROUND: Traditional dyeing methods are practically forgotten in Poland. Józef Rostafinski included questions on the use of dyes in his ethnobotanical survey from 1883. METHODS: 126 questionnaires contained information on dye plants. They were identified by the respondents using folk names or sometimes even Latin names. Folk names were analyzed by comparison with other literature. Several voucher specimens were also present. RESULTS: 74 plant taxa were identified to genus or species level. The most commonly used were: onion (Allium cepa), brazilwood (Caesalpinia brasiliensis or Paubrasilia echinata), winter corn (mainly rye Secale cereale), black alder (Alnus glutinosa), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), apple (Malus domestica), birch (Betula pendula), oak (Quercus robur), and violet flowering spring flowers (mainly Hepatica nobilis and Pulsatilla spp.). CONCLUSIONS: Most species are well known in the literature about plant dyeing, but the paper provides extra details on the picture of dyeing traditions in Eastern Europe.

Turmeric and Cumin Instead of Stock Cubes: An Internet Survey of Spices and Culinary Herbs Used in Poland Compared with Historical Cookbooks and Herbals.

(Background) Culinary cultures undergo dramatic changes due to globalization; however, the shift in the use of culinary spices and herbs is little documented. We aimed to list seasoning products used in contemporary Polish cuisine and assess whether they have roots in historic recipes. (Methods) Via an online questionnaire distributed via social media, we gathered data from 916 respondents from all over Poland. (Results) Altogether 132 single-ingredient taxa of plant or fungi species were mentioned in the questionnaire. Capsicums, black pepper, turmeric, oregano, cinnamon, marjoram, ginger, basil, thyme, and bay leaf were the 10 most quoted seasonings throughout the year. While local herbs are likely to have been long used in local cooking, the most commonly used spices have been known in Poland since at least 17-18th c. However, a few Asian, mainly Indian spices have become mainstream in the last few years. In particular, these are turmeric, cumin, and fenugreek. The seasonings which decreased the most are various seasoning mixes and stock cubes, unpopular due to the large amount of monosodium glutamate and salt. (Conclusions) Polish cuisine is undergoing a strong process of globalization, and curry spices have become standard cooking ingredients.

Traditional Ethnobotanical Knowledge of the Central Lika Region (Continental Croatia)-First Record of Edible Use of Fungus Taphrina pruni.

This study analyzed the use of plants and fungi, some wild and some cultivated, in three municipalities of Lika-Senj County (Perusic, Gospic and Lovinac). The range of the study area was about 60 km. Forty in-depth semi-structured interviews were performed. The use of 111 plant taxa from 50 plant families and five taxa of mushrooms and fungi belonging to five families was recorded (on average 27 taxa per interview). The results showed quite large differences between the three studied areas in terms of ethnobotanical and ecological knowledge. In the Perusic area, (101 taxa mentioned), some people still use wild plants on a daily basis for various purposes. The most commonly noted plants are Prunus spinosa, Taraxacum spp., Rosa canina, Urtica dioica, Juglans regia and Fragaria vesca. In the Lovinac region, people used fewer species of plants (76 species mentioned). The most common species used there are: Rosa canina, Achillea millefolium, Cornus mas, Crataegus monogyna, Sambucus nigra and Prunus domestica. In the town of Gospic, the collection and use of plants was not so widespread, with only 61 species mentioned, the most common being: Achillea millefolium, Cornus mas, Sambucus nigra, Viola sp., Prunus domestica and Rosa canina. The medicinal use of herbal tea Rubus caesius and Cydonia oblonga against diarrhea was well known in the study area and is used medicinally, mainly in the rural parts of the Gospic area. The consumption of the Sorbus species (S. aria, S. domestica and S. torminalis) is an interesting local tradition in Perusic and Lovinac. Species that are difficult to find in nature today and are no longer used include: Veratrum sp., Rhamnus alpinum ssp. fallax, Gentiana lutea and Ribes uva-crispa. The use of Chenopodium album has also died out. We can assume that the differences in ethnobotanical knowledge between the three studied areas are partly due to minor differences in climate and topography, while other causes lie in the higher degree of rurality and stronger ties to nature in the Lovinac and Perusic areas. The most important finding of the study is the use of the parasitic fungus Taphrina pruni (Fuckel) Tul. as a snack. The use of Helleborus dumetorum for ethnoveterinary practices is also worth noting. The traditional use of plants in the study area shows many signs of abandonment, and therefore efforts must be made to maintain the knowledge recorded in our study.

Local traditional ecological knowledge about hay management practices in wetlands of the Biebrza Valley, Poland.

BACKGROUND: The Biebrza Valley is one of the largest complexes of wetlands (floodplain and percolation mire) and conservation sites in Central Europe. Local communities have managed the area extensively for subsistence and farming purposes for centuries; nonetheless, since the 1960s, hand mowing and livestock grazing have been gradually ceasing due to the intensification of farming, and wetlands have undergone natural succession. Currently, the protection of this vast ecosystem is challenging. Despite its remarkable cultural origin, the complexity of the traditional practices and knowledge of local people have never been studied comprehensively. Therefore, we found it urgent to explore if traditional ecological knowledge that could be used in conservation management of the area still exists among the local community. METHODS: We interviewed 42 inhabitants of seven villages located in the Lower Basin of the Biebrza Valley (NE-Poland) in the consecutive years 2018-2020. We applied semi-structured, repeated interviews with farmers (aged 29-89), each lasting several hours. By using different ethnoecological methods (visual stimuli, walks in wetlands, co-mapping of the area), we explored traditional knowledge on the plants, landscape and traditional management of wetlands. RESULTS: Farmers from the oldest generation, who used to manage wetlands with scythes, shared the deepest ecological knowledge. Local people divided wetlands into zones differentiated by vegetation type and hay quality. Depending on plant composition, people managed wetlands under a mixed regime: mowing once or twice a year during periods that ensured good hay quality and pasturing various livestock: cattle, horses, sheep, pigs and fowl. We identified at least 50 plant ethnospecies, which were described exhaustively by their habitat, morphological features, and mowing and grazing value. CONCLUSIONS: The local community in the Biebrza Valley shared a deep traditional ecological knowledge and had a good memory of traditional farming practices. Research confirmed the unquestionable cultural origin of the local ecosystem, therefore in conservation endeavours the area should be treated first and foremost as a cultural landscape. The documented exceptional local perception of the wetland landscape, elements of traditional knowledge and complex farming practices should be considered for inclusion into conservation management, and cooperation with the local community should also be taken into account.

Dysphania schraderiana (Schult.) Mosyakin & Clemants - An overlooked medicinal and ritual plant used in Poland.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The paper discusses the traditional ritual, medicinal and insect repellent use of Dysphania schraderiana in Poland, a plant with little ethnobotanical and phytochemical data. Our research suggests that its properties should be further studied comparing it with the related D. botrys and D. ambrosioides. AIM OF THE WORK: D. schraderiana is an aromatic and medicinal annual herb related to D. ambrosioides and D. botrys and practically absent from historical accounts of plant uses in Europe. The aim of this work is to characterise the current use of D. schraderiana in south east Poland on the background of historical Dysphania species use in Europe. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The data on D. schraderiana was collected in 2020, based on interviews with 42 people in rural areas of south-eastern Poland where the species is used today. A range of textual sources were searched including old medicinal herbals, pharmaceutical handbooks, ethnobotanical publications and culinary databases regarding all the uses of Dysphania species in Europe. RESULTS: In the study area D. schraderiana occurs in the whole spectrum of cultivation stages - from being intentionally cultivated to completely wild. The plant is used mainly as an apotropaic and insect repellent, blessed during Catholic church holidays (mainly Assumption Day), and sometimes used as incense in churches (and blessed on Epiphany Day). D. schraderiana rarely occurs in European historical sources, except sometimes classed as a false, inferior form of D. botrys, which has been known for centuries as a moth repellent and treatment for respiratory illness. We hypothesise that the plant was not easily distinguished from D. botrys and their uses strongly overlapped. For some unknown reason the use of D. botrys died out, whereas a relatively large semi-feral population of D. schraderiana exists in south-eastern Poland where it has remained a culturally important plant. CONCLUSIONS: D. schraderiana is a rare case of a non-native plant traditionally used within an area of Europe but previously nearly overlooked in European ethnobotanical literature. Historical uses of Dysphania spp. in other areas of Poland and former Poland (now western Ukraine) suggest that the genus was used more widely in regions beyond the one studied. However, a very compact distribution of use suggests that D. schraderiana may have been brought to SE Poland from a single source outside the study area. Its common name, and use as a holy incense plant, is associated it with the well-known biblical tree resin obtained from Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.

Foods from the wild: Local knowledge, use pattern and distribution in Western Nepal.

Locally harvested wild edible plants (WEPs) provide food as well as cash income for indigenous peoples and local communities, and they are of great importance in ensuring local food security. However, their uses and availability are poorly documented. This study aimed to enumerate WEP diversity and status of WEPs in a part of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Sikles region, where the population is dominated by the Gurung community. Ethnobotanical data were collected using guided field walks, semi-structured interviews, and field observation. The informant consensus method was employed and group discussions were conducted for triangulation of the information. Free listing and identification tests were performed to assess the knowledge of the informants. Both descriptive statistics and quantitative ethnobotanical methods were used for data analysis. A total of 72 wild food species belonging to 46 families and 61 genera were reported from the study area. Asparagaceae and Rosaceae were the dominant families, and herbs were the dominant life form. Fruits (34 species) were the most frequently used plant parts, followed by young shoots (16 species). Most edible plants were consumed in summer and during rainy seasons. While the age and type of informants had an influence on the number of enumerated plants, gender did not. Key informants and people aged 30-45 reported more species than other groups of respondents. Most of the knowledge about the use of WEPs was acquired from parents and relatives. The consumption of these plants was attributed to diversifying cuisine, spicing staple food, nutri-medicinal values, and cultural practices. People perceived the availability of WEPs to be gradually decreasing. However, WEPs are still abundant and diverse in the study area, and knowledge on their use is well-preserved. These resources provide food and nutrients to local people and can also be a source of cash income. Therefore, the documented information on WEPs may serve as baseline data for further studies on nutritional values and provide guidelines for safe collection. The results also revealed that many wild species are under growing pressure from various anthropogenic factors, suggesting effective community engagement is required for their conservation.

Insular Pharmacopoeias: Ethnobotanical Characteristics of Medicinal Plants Used on the Adriatic Islands.

The Adriatic islands in Croatia, usually divided into two archipelagos - the Kvarner and Dalmatian islands - is one of the largest groups of islands in Europe. Over 40 islands are still inhabited. Unfortunately the traditional use of medicinal plants was never properly documented there. Our data comes from 343 interviews carried out in 36 islands, including the 15 largest islands of the archipelago. The medicinal plants are mainly used to make herbal infusions or decoctions, occasionally medicinal liqueurs, syrups, compresses, or juices squeezed out of raw plants. We recorded the use of 146 taxa, among them 131 with at least one medicinal purpose and 15 only for tea. The frequency curve of use is relatively steep - several plants are used very frequently and most are reported only by one or two informants, which can be explained both by the large geographical spread of the area, and even more so by the devolution of local knowledge and disappearance of gathering practices due to specialization in tourism, modernization and depopulation. Most of the gathered plants already occur in ancient and medieval herbals and are a part of the pan-Mediterranean pharmacopoeia.

Fungal ethnoecology: observed habitat preferences and the perception of changes in fungal abundance by mushroom collectors in Poland.

BACKGROUND: Scientists frequently raise the topic of data deficiency related to the abundance and distribution of macrofungi in the context of climate change. Our study is the first detailed documentation on locals' perception of fungal ecology which covers a large mycophilous region of Europe (Mazovia, Poland). METHODS: A total of 695 semi-structured interviews were carried out among local informants in 38 localities proportionally distributed throughout the study area (one locality approximately every 30 km). Interview questions concerned fungi species collected, their perceived habitats, and whether any changes had been noted in their abundance. As many as 556 respondents provided information concerning fungal ecology. In these descriptions, 35 taxa were mentioned by at least 5 respondents. RESULTS: The data collected during interviews allowed us to create collective folk descriptions of habitat preferences and a list of 98 different macro-, meso-, and microhabitats of macrofungi described by the respondents. This list of recurring habitats assigned to particular macrofungal taxa coincides with, and sometimes exceeds, data available in scientific publications. Some habitat preferences observed by the informants have not yet been researched or tested by science. Out of 695 respondents, 366 (53%) noticed a steady decrease in local macrofungi abundance, and only one person claimed to have observed a steady increase. Imleria badia was the only species with increased abundance, as noted by fifteen independent respondents. The main listed reason for abundance decrease was drought (f = 186). CONCLUSIONS: Collected information on the ecology of fungi shows that local knowledge does not generally diverge from scientific knowledge. The acquired information related to macrofungal abundance and ecology may also be used as a tool for the formulation of new scientific questions and theories. The analysis of local fungi observations might contribute to broadening knowledge about local changes in fungi and enable new estimations related to large-scale analysis of macrofungal abundance.

Wild food plants and fungi sold in the markets of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

BACKGROUND: Open air markets hold an important position for ethnobiologists. In Southeast Asia, they are seriously understudied, in spite of their incredible biocultural diversity. In order to fill this gap we recorded plants and fungi sold in the open air markets of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. METHODS: The markets were visited 38 times in four seasons: the dry season, early monsoon, mid-monsoon, and end-of-monsoon, at least 8 times per season. All items were photographed and voucher specimens were collected. Fungi were identified using DNA barcoding techniques. RESULTS: We recorded 110 species of wild edible plants and 54 species of fungi, including 49 wild-collected species. The sold plants included 86 species of green vegetables, 18 species of fruits and 3 species of flowers. Products from woody species constitute around half of all taxa sold. These include the young shoots of tree leaves, which are used for salads-an interesting feature of Lao cuisine. A large number of extremely rare Russula, with no reference sequences represented in databases or even species unknown to science is present on sale in the markets. CONCLUSIONS: Luang Prabang markets are some of the richest in species of wild edible plants and fungi in Asia, and indeed in the whole world. It is worth pointing out the exceptionally long list of wild edible mushrooms which are sold in Luang Prabang (and probably elsewhere in Laos). We view the Morning Market of Luang Prabang as a cultural treasure that unites the traditions of eating a large number of living species with very diverse flora and fauna. Measures should be taken to strike a balance between local foraging traditions and nature conservation priorities.

Wild plants and fungi sold in the markets of Yerevan (Armenia).

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to record wild plants and fungi sold in the capital of Armenia. This is the first large market survey in the Caucasus region. The area of the Caucasus is characterised by a very high diversity of climates, flora and languages which results in very rich traditions of plant use. METHODS: Interviews were conducted and photos and voucher specimens were taken during multiple visits made over 4 years. We studied 37 locations and 136 people were interviewed. RESULTS: As many as 163 plant species, belonging to 44 families and 110 genera, were recorded on Yerevan markets. This included 148 wild food species, 136 medicinal species, 45 species sold for decoration, 15 species of wood and 9 species of insect repellents. Also 14 wild species of fungi were sold, including 12 food species. CONCLUSIONS: The list of plants sold in the markets of Yerevan is very extensive and diverse, and includes many species of wild fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants, some of them never listed in ethnobotanical directories before. A characteristic feature of this market is a large representation of lacto-fermented products. Some of the species sold in Yerevan have never been reported as human food either in wild edible plant word lists or in ethnobotanical publications, e.g. Angelica tatianae, Ferulago setifolia and Heracleum chorodanum. Fungi are also well represented.

Plants in alcoholic beverages on the Croatian islands, with special reference to rakija travarica.

BACKGROUND: This paper aims to record the species used for flavouring and making alcoholic drinks, mainly rakija, on the islands of the Adriatic (Croatia). METHODS: Our data comes from 295 interviews performed on 36 islands, in both the Dalmatian and Kvarner areas of the Adriatic. RESULTS: Altogether, 114 species are used-46% from wild locations only, 15% both wild and cultivated, 38% only cultivated and two species are imported. The most common local alcohol is wine, made without spices, but grape pomace distillate is often flavoured with single or mixed species. The mix is called travarica. The most commonly used species are Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Myrtus communis L., Salvia officinalis L., Ruta graveolens L., Juniperus oxycedrus L., Ceratonia siliqua L., Juglans regia L., Citrus spp., Ficus carica L., Laurus nobilis L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Artemisia absinthium L., Rosa centifolia L., Mentha × piperita L. and M. spicata L. Unfortunately, the widespread phenomenon of distilling Arbutus unedo L. fruits and fermenting Juniperus 'wine' is now extinct. Apart from grapes, the only commonly distilled fruit now is Ficus carica. CONCLUSIONS: It is striking that nearly all the plants are either wild or cultivated locally, which, in addition to the fact that the alcohol is made locally, shows the incredible local culinary self-sufficiency of the area. The number of species used is also very impressive.

The ethnobotany and biogeography of wild vegetables in the Adriatic islands.

BACKGROUND: Archipelagos of islands have played an important role in shaping some of the paradigms of biology, including the theory of the evolution of species. Later, their importance in biology was further emphasised by the theory of island biogeography, which contributed to a better understanding of the shaping of species richness not only on real islands, but on isolated habitat islands as well. Although ethnobotany is a well-established discipline, patterns of knowledge about plant uses in archipelagos have never been quantitatively analysed, and the whole concept has been only briefly mentioned in the ethnobiological context. The aim of our study was to record which taxa of wild vegetables have been consumed in the Adriatic islands and to establish if such variables as island size, population size, flora or its isolation are correlated with the number of wild vegetables used. METHODS: We interviewed 225 people (15 from each island). RESULTS: Altogether, the use of 89 species of wild vegetables has been recorded. The largest number of wild vegetables is eaten on the islands of Korcula, Vis and Solta, and the lowest on Ugljan, Cres and Dugi Otok. The studied independent variables had a small and statistically not significant effect on the wild vegetable list length. The most visible effect was an increasing trend from north-west to south-east, overrunning the typical biogeographical island patterns. Moreover, one of the large and well-populated islands, Korcula, showed an 'unusually' high level of wild vegetable use. We hypothesise that the current use of so many species on this island has been maintained by the inhabitants' awareness that they are the holders of relic knowledge, an awareness reiterated by ethnographic and popular publications, as well as a strong history of famine. The most interesting edible species used in the Adriatic islands are Bunium alpinum, Cytinus hypocystis (both mainly on Pasman), Lotus edulis (on Vis) and Posidonia oceanica (on Vis and Korcula). CONCLUSIONS: The recorded relationships between the demographic and geographical features of the islands were statistically not significant. We assume that cultural and historical factors diversifying the use of plants in particular islands are stronger than the above-mentioned measurable variables.

Extreme levels of mycophilia documented in Mazovia, a region of Poland.

BACKGROUND: The paper presents documentation of the traditional use of wild edible mushrooms in Mazovia (33,900 km2), a region of Poland. METHODS: A total of 695 semi-structured interviews were carried out among local informants in 38 localities proportionally distributed throughout the study area (one locality approximately every 30 km), asking which mushrooms they collected and how. The species utilized were identified using visual props, morphological identification of voucher specimens, and DNA barcoding. RESULTS: Altogether, 92 taxa identified to the species or genus level were recorded, among them 76 species used as food, 21 taxa known as toxic, and 11 taxa used for non-culinary purposes. Out of 76 identified edible fungi species, 47% (36 species) were identified using ITS DNA barcode method. Eleven of them were identified exclusively by molecular analysis. The mean number of edible taxa mentioned per interview was 9.5. Two species new to the mycobiota of Poland, Hydnum ellipsosporum and Paxillus cuprinus, were found. Frequent interaction with mushroom collectors enabled the transcription of local folk taxonomy into proper taxonomic classification and the definition of changes in local preferences concerning wild fungi collection. CONCLUSIONS: The list of species utilized is the longest regional list of edible mushrooms ever recorded during ethnomycological field research, putting the inhabitants of the studied region at the top of the mycophilia spectrum.

Consumption patterns of wild edibles by the Vasavas: a case study from Gujarat, India.

BACKGROUND: Wild edibles continue to be a significant contributor to the global food basket in much of the developing world. A consensus has now been formed that information on wild edibles is an important part of ethnobotanical knowledge and hence elucidating region-specific patterns of habitat management and consumption assists policy making with regard to natural conservation, human nutrition, and human health. Using an original data set from Gujarat, India, the present research aims to document the collective knowledge of wild edibles possessed by the local Vasava tribe, as well as the habitat usage and consumption trends of these species. METHODS: Data were collected using three approaches: key informant interviews to record the local knowledge of wild edibles and methods of collection, village group discussions to quantify past and present consumption trends, and expert interviews to elucidate the reasons for changing consumption patterns. RESULTS: Through key informant interviews, 90 species of wild edibles from 46 botanical families were identified along with their Vasavi names, plant parts utilized, habitats, and cooking methods. Of these, 60 species were also used medicinally and 15 carried economic value. Different habitats were preferred for collection at different times of the year. Village group discussions unanimously concluded that the consumption of wild edibles has significantly reduced over time. Expert interviews identified the decreased availability of these species in their natural habitats as the most important reason for their reduced consumption. CONCLUSION: The present study has demonstrated that the Vasavas' collective knowledge of wild edibles is vast and that these species contribute to their dietary diversity throughout the year. The finding of the present study, namely that anthropogenically managed habitats were often preferred over natural environments for the collection of wild edibles, suggests that conservation efforts should be extended beyond wild and human-uninhabited landscapes.

Plants as highly diverse sources of construction wood, handicrafts and fibre in the Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, China): the importance of minor forest products.

BACKGROUND: Chinese rural communities living among species-rich forests have little documentation on species used to make handicrafts and construction materials originating from the surrounding vegetation. Our research aimed at recording minor wood uses in the Heihe valley in the Qinling mountains. METHODS: We carried out 37 semi-structured interviews in seven villages. RESULTS: We documented the use of 84 species of plants. All local large canopy trees are used for some purpose. Smaller trees and shrubs which are particularly hard are selectively cut. The bark of a few species was used to make shoes, hats, steamers and ropes, but this tradition is nearly gone. A few species, mainly bamboo, are used for basket making, and year-old willow branches are used for brushing off the chaff during wheat winnowing. CONCLUSIONS: The traditional use of wood materials documented suggests that some rare and endangered tree species may have been selectively cut due to their valuable wood, e.g. Fraxinus mandshurica and Taxus wallichiana var. chinensis. Some other rare species, e.g. Dipteronia sinensis, are little used and little valued.

Using Ellenberg-Pignatti values to estimate habitat preferences of wild food and medicinal plants: an example from northeastern Istria (Croatia).

BACKGROUND: The paper presents the first ethnobotanical application of Ellenberg indicator values, which are widely used in European plant ecology. The aim of the study was to find out if Ellenberg values (indicating habitat preferences) differ for wild food and medicinal plants used in north-eastern Istria (Croatia). We used Ellenberg-Pignatti values (the version of Ellenberg values used in this part of Europe). METHODS: Fifty semi-structured interviews were carried out among local key informants, asking which wild food and medicinal plants they used. RESULTS: The mean number of food and medicinal plants mentioned per interview was 30. Altogether, 121 species were recorded as food or medicine used or previously used in the study area. Thirty-one species are used exclusively as food or everyday drink, 50 species are used exclusively as medicine and 40 species are used for both food and medicine. There were no significant differences between Ellenberg values for food and medicinal plants, apart from the Nitrogen indicator value - the plants used exclusively as food had a significantly higher index than those used in medicine. This probably stems from the fact that plants with soft fleshy shoots are attractive as food and they are more likely to come from nitrogen-rich ruderal habitats. CONCLUSIONS: Food plants and medicinal plants are collected from a variety of habitats and no clear difference between the two categories of plants was detected, however further testing of Ellenberg values in ethnobotanical studies could be interesting.

Fischer's Plants in folk beliefs and customs: a previously unknown contribution to the ethnobotany of the Polish-Lithuanian-Belarusian borderland.

BACKGROUND: Historical ethnobotanical studies are useful starting points for further diachronic analysis. The aim of this contribution is to present archival data from the Polish-Lithuanian-Belarusian borderland, which were collected by Adam Fischer, a Polish ethnographer from Lviv, in the 1930s. These data were originally gathered for publication in the first part of the Lexicon of Slavic beliefs and customs, dedicated to plant uses in traditional Slavonic culture. It was intended to be a joint international enterprise, but was never actually fulfilled. METHODS: In this article we used information from historical Lithuania (the Great Duchy of Lithuania), nowadays a border region between Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. We applied cultural importance indices such as Use Value, Relative Importance value and Sørensen similarity coefficient, in order to compare our data with a western Ukraine data set from the same research framework. RESULTS: In total, 153 plant taxa were registered as used in peasant culture in the Polish-Lithuanian-Belarusian borderland in the 1930s. The species which achieved the highest Use Values were: Calendula officinalis, Cyanus segetum, Helichrysum arenarium, Betula sp., Prunella vulgaris, and Nuphar lutea or Lilium sp. The most salient use categories were medicinal, followed by food and home garden plants. The overall similarity to plants recorded in western Ukraine within the same project of Fischer's is quite low (46%), which may be explained by the partly different flora found in the regions, and a cultural discontinuity, revealed by the difference in species with the highest UV. Moreover, the field collaborators were different in the two regions and may have paid attention to different cultural spheres of use. CONCLUSIONS: The presented ethnobotanical data are a valuable contribution to the ethnobotany of Eastern Europe as a whole. In particular, the presented list of plants may be a rich source for future studies on the ethnobotany of the Polish diaspora in Lithuania, and diachronic studies in north-east Poland and Belarus.

The bear in Eurasian plant names: motivations and models.

Ethnolinguistic studies are important for understanding an ethnic group's ideas on the world, expressed in its language. Comparing corresponding aspects of such knowledge might help clarify problems of origin for certain concepts and words, e.g. whether they form common heritage, have an independent origin, are borrowings, or calques. The current study was conducted on the material in Slavonic, Baltic, Germanic, Romance, Finno-Ugrian, Turkic and Albanian languages. The bear was chosen as being a large, dangerous animal, important in traditional culture, whose name is widely reflected in folk plant names. The phytonyms for comparison were mostly obtained from dictionaries and other publications, and supplemented with data from databases, the co-authors' field data, and archival sources (dialect and folklore materials). More than 1200 phytonym use records (combinations of a local name and a meaning) for 364 plant and fungal taxa were recorded to help find out the reasoning behind bear-nomination in various languages, as well as differences and similarities between the patterns among them. Among the most common taxa with bear-related phytonyms were Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng., Heracleum sphondylium L., Acanthus mollis L., and Allium ursinum L., with Latin loan translation contributing a high proportion of the phytonyms. Some plants have many and various bear-related phytonyms, while others have only one or two bear names. Features like form and/or surface generated the richest pool of names, while such features as colour seemed to provoke rather few associations with bears. The unevenness of bear phytonyms in the chosen languages was not related to the size of the language nor the present occurence of the Brown Bear in the region. However, this may, at least to certain extent, be related to the amount of the historical ethnolinguistic research done on the selected languages.

Wild and native plants and mushrooms sold in the open-air markets of south-eastern Poland.

BACKGROUND: The study of plants and fungi sold in open-air markets is an important part of ethnobotanical enquiry. Only few such studies were carried out in Europe. METHODS: Four of the largest open-air markets of south-eastern Poland were visited regularly, and the plants sold in them were recorded between 2013 and 2015. The aim of the study was to record native and/or wild species sold in the markets. All the plants sold in the markets were photographed regularly. In each market, 25 sellers were interviewed. Voucher specimens were collected and fungi were identified using DNA barcoding. RESULTS: Altogether, 468 species of plants were recorded, 117 of them native to south-eastern Poland - 19 only collected from the wild and 11 both wild and cultivated. Seventeen of the species are under legal protection. Most protected plants were sold from cultivation, although proper authorization procedures had not been performed. Thirty-two species of fungi were sold (including two cultivated species), all of them for culinary purposes. Two species (Lactarius quieticolor, Leccinum schistophilum) are new to the mycobiota of Poland. Ornamental plants constituted a large section of the market, and they dominated the group of native species. Food plants dominated among wild-collected plants and were sold mainly as fruits for jams, juices and alcoholic drinks, or as culinary herbs. Very few medicinal or green vegetable plants were sold. An interesting feature of the markets was the sale of Ledum palustre as an insect repellent. CONCLUSIONS: Finding two species of fungi which are new to Poland highlights the importance of DNA barcoding in ethnomycological studies. Most items in the markets are ornamental plants, or edible fruits and mushrooms. Very few medicinal plants and green vegetables are sold, which differentiates the markets from southern European ones. Such a pattern is probably the model for most central European markets.