The impact of partial oil substitution and trace metal ions on the evolution of peroxidation products in thermally stressed culinary oils.

Suppressing toxic aldehydic lipid oxidation product (LOP) generation in culinary oils is now considered vital, since the deleterious effects arising from their ingestion are implicated in a wide range of disease conditions. Partial substitution involves the replenishment of thermally-stressed culinary oils with corresponding unheated ones. This technique was tested by employing 10%, 25%, 50%, and 75% (v/v) partial substitutions of coconut, olive, rapeseed, and sunflower oils at 180℃ for a 300 min continuous thermo-oxidation duration. Oil samples were analysed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy. Trace metal levels, including oxidation-reduction (redox)-active metal ions credited with enhancing cooking oil oxidation were also analysed using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). As expected, the degree of oil unsaturation, and the % partial substitutions significantly influenced their susceptibility to thermo-oxidation. In view of the very low polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) contents of coconut oil, both the class and concentrations of evolved LOPs were found to be least affected by this partial substitution process. Aldehydic LOPs were greatly suppressed in partially-substituted rapeseed oil. The % suppression activity of LOPs evaluated for the partially substituted oils were generally high making partial oil substitutions an effective chemical-free method in suppressing LOPs at both industrial and commercial levels. In general, the % partial oil substitutions were directly related to the dilution effect observed for LOPs quantified in the oils. Furthermore, trace metal ion concentrations measured in the culinary oils did not influence the evolution of LOPs in the oils.

Characterizing neonatal vitamin D deficiency in the modern era: A maternal-neonatal birth cohort from Southern Europe.

Absence of adequate maternal vitamin D supplementation and decreased maternal ultraviolet exposure during pregnancy are key determinants for the manifestation of neonatal hypovitaminosis D at birth. These parameters may vary, according to country-specific dietary patterns, health policies and sunshine exposure. We aimed to investigate differences in calcium metabolism and anthropometric profiles according to neonatal vitamin D status at birth, in a sunny region of Northern Greece. A secondary aim was to identify maternal parameters as risk factors for developing neonatal vitamin D deficiency at birth. A total of 129 mother-neonate pairs were included in the study and classified into three groups, according to neonatal 25-hydroxy-D [25(OH)D)] concentrations at birth [deficiency (<30 nmol/l), insufficiency (30-50 nmol/l) and sufficiency (>50 nmol/l)]. Neonatal biochemical and anthropometric profiles and maternal demographic, social, dietary and biochemical profiles were comparatively evaluated between the three groups. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify independent associations of maternal factors with neonatal vitamin D status. Vitamin D deficient-neonates manifested higher parathyroid hormone (7.20 ± 2.60 vs 5.50 ± 1.50 pg/ml, p = 0.01) and lower corrected calcium (10.70 ± 0.70 vs 11.30 ± 1.30 mg/dl, p = 0.02) concentrations compared with vitamin d-insufficient neonates. Mothers of vitamin D deficient and insufficient neonates had a lower total of 25(OH)D (31.7 ± 19.2 and 36.5 ± 22.3 vs 53.3 ± 39.0 nmol/l, p < 0.01) and 25(OH)D3 (27.4 ± 17.5 and 33.3 ± 19.9 vs 47.3 ± 36.7 nmol/l, p < 0.01 and p = 0.04, respectively) concentrations respectively, compared with those of vitamin D-sufficient neonates. Maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy was associated with a 5.57-fold higher risk for neonatal vitamin D deficiency at birth (OR 5.57, 95 % CI1.17-26.56, p = 0.03). Newborns with vitamin D deficiency presented a 6.89-fold higher risk of having been given birth by vitamin D deficient mothers (OR 6.89, 95 % CI 3.09-15.38, p < 0.01). In conclusion, neonatal vitamin D deficiency is associated with maternal 25(OH)D concentrations at birth and maternal alcohol use. Further studies are required to replicate these findings in other regions and populations.

Characterisation of peroxidation products arising from culinary oils exposed to continuous and discontinuous thermal degradation processes.

High-resolution NMR analysis has been used, for the first time, to identify, putatively, two new secondary aldehydic lipid oxidation products in culinary oils. The impact of heating and cooling times on the thermal stability, fatty acid composition and lipid oxidation product (LOP) concentrations have been analysed for continuous and discontinuous heating periods (180 °C). The susceptibility of the selected oils to thermal oxidation for the different heating episodes has been evaluated via the detection and determination of LOPs, particularly cytotoxic and genotoxic aldehydes. The identities and quantities of these LOPs evolved throughout a 2.0 hour period. Results acquired indicated that sunflower oil was more resistant to discontinuous oxidation than rapeseed and olive oils, however overall discontinuous heating resulted in more LOPs.

Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 Activities by Extracts of Hyptis verticillata Jacq.: Assessment for Potential HERB-Drug Interactions.

Understanding the potential for adverse drug reactions (ADRs), from herb-drug interactions, is a key aspect of medicinal plant safety, with particular relevance for public health in countries where medicinal plant use is highly prevalent. We undertook an in-depth assessment of extracts of Hyptis verticillata Jacq., via its impact on activities of key cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes (CYPs 1A1, 1A2, 1B1, 3A4 and 2D6), its antioxidant properties (determined by DPPH assays) and chemical characterisation (using LC-MS). The dried plant aqueous extract demonstrated potent inhibition of the activities of CYPs 1A1 (7.6 µg/mL), 1A2 (1.9 µg/mL), 1B1 (9.4 µg/mL) and 3A4 (6.8 µg/mL). Further analysis of other crude extracts demonstrated potent inhibition of CYP1A2 activity for a dried plant ethanol extract (1.5 µg/mL), fresh plant ethanol extract (3.9 µg/mL), and moderate activity for a fresh plant aqueous extract (27.8 µg/mL). All four extracts demonstrated strong antioxidant activity, compared to the positive control (ascorbic acid, 1.3 µg/mL), with the dried plant ethanol extract being the most potent (1.6 µg/mL). Analysis of the dried plant aqueous extract confirmed the identity of seven phytochemicals, five lignans and two triterpenes. Individual screening of these phytochemicals against the activity of CYP1A2 identified yatein as a moderate inhibitor (71.9 µM), likely to contribute to the plant extract's potent bioactivity. Further analysis on the impact of this plant on key drug metabolizing enzymes in vivo appears warranted for likely ADRs, as well as furthering development as a potential chemopreventive agent.

The Road Not So Travelled: Should Measurement of Vitamin D Epimers during Pregnancy Affect Our Clinical Decisions?

Observational studies suggest an adverse effect of maternal hypovitaminosis D during pregnancy. However, intervention studies failed to show convincing benefit from vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy. With analytical advances, vitamin D can now be measured in ten forms-including as epimers-which were thought to be biologically inactive, but can critically impair immunoassays. The aim of this commentary is to highlight the potential clinical and analytical significance of vitamin D epimers in the interpretation of vitamin D roles in pregnancy. Epimers may contribute a considerable proportion of total vitamin D-especially in the neonate-which renders the majority of common assays questionable. Furthermore, epimers have been suggested to have activity in laboratory studies, and evidence suggests that the fetus contributes significantly to epimer production. Maternal epimer levels contribute significantly to predict neonate circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations. In conclusion, the existence of various vitamin D forms (such as epimers) has been established, and their clinical significance remains obscure. These results underscore the need for accurate measurements to appraise vitamin D status, in order to understand the current gap between observational and supplementation studies on the field.

Russian roulette with unlicensed fat-burner drug 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP): evidence from a multidisciplinary study of the internet, bodybuilding supplements and DNP users.

BACKGROUND: 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) poses serious health-risks to humans. The aims of this three-stage multidisciplinary project were, for the first time, to assess the risks to the general public from fraudulent sale of or adulteration/contamination with DNP; and to investigate motives, reasons and risk-management among DNP-user bodybuilders and avid exercisers. METHODS: Using multiple search-engines and guidance for Internet research, online retailers and bodybuilding forums/blogs were systematically explored for availability of DNP, advice offered on DNP use and user profiles. Ninety-eight pre-workout and weight-loss supplements were purchased and analysed for DNP using liquid-chromatography-mass-spectrometry. Psychosocial variables were captured in an international sample of 35 DNP users (26.06 ± 6.10 years, 94.3 % male) with an anonymous, semi-qualitative self-reported survey. RESULTS: Although an industrial chemical, evidence from the Internet showed that DNP is sold 'as is', in capsules or tablets to suit human consumption, and is used 'uncut'. Analytical results confirmed that DNP is not on the supplement market disguised under fictitious supplement names, but infrequently was present as contaminant in some supplements (14/98) at low concentration (<100mcg/kg). Users make conscious and 'informed' decisions about DNP; are well-prepared for the side-effects and show nonchalant attitude toward self-experimentation with DNP. Steps are often taken to ensure that DNP is genuine. Personal experience with performance- and appearance enhancing substances appears to be a gateway to DNP. Advice on DNP and experiences are shared online. The significant discrepancy between the normative perception and the actual visibility suggests that DNP use is-contrary to the Internet accounts-a highly concealed and lonesome activity in real life. Positive experiences with the expected weight-loss prevail over the negative experiences from side effects (all but two users considered using DNP again) and help with using DNP safely is considered preferable over scare-tactics. CONCLUSION: Legislation banning DNP sale for human consumption protects the general public but DNP is sold 'as is' and used 'uncut' by determined users who are not dissuaded from experimenting with DNP based on health threats. Further research with stakeholders' active participation is imperative for targeted, proactive public health policies and harm-reduction measures for DNP, and other illicit supplements.

Maternal vitamin D status in pregnancy: a critical appraisal of current analytical data on maternal and neonatal outcomes.

Maternal hypovitaminosis D during pregnancy has been associated with a wide spectrum of adverse maternal and neonatal health outcomes, some manifesting stronger associations than others. Research in this field has entered the "era of systematic data evaluation" via the conducting of a series of meta-analyses in an attempt to synthesize the diverse data from observational and supplementation studies. The aim of this review was to provide a critical appraisal of published observational and interventional (supplementation) meta-analyses on the link between maternal vitamin D status and health consequences to both mothers and neonates. A literature review was performed by two reviewers in the Medline and Embase databases, from inception to March 2014, without any language restriction. Additional articles were identified by a manual search of the references from the key articles retrieved. The results provided evidence that the meta-analyses on the link between maternal vitamin D status and maternal / neonatal health consequences are characterized by a wide heterogeneity of studied populations as well as methodological pitfalls, including the absence of standardized vitamin D assays and evaluation of vital external regulators of vitamin D bio-networks. Based on the above, interpretation of these meta-analyses should be carried out with care. Future supplementation studies should take into consideration all these population and methodological issues by incorporating them in their research design and settings.

A systematic review on the herbal extract Tribulus terrestris and the roots of its putative aphrodisiac and performance enhancing effect.

Tribulus terrestris (TT) is a dicotyledonous herbal plant of the Zygophyllaceae family. In ancient medicine, extracts of the aerial parts and fruits have been used for its diuretic, tonic, and aphrodisiac properties. Today, TT is widely used by athletes and bodybuilders based on the belief, fueled by claims in marketing information, that it can enhance testosterone concentrations. To assess TT's effect on testosterone levels in human and animals, an electronic literature search out using seven databases and the patent database up to August 2013 was carried out. Randomized control trials, which included healthy human subjects ingesting TT as sole or combined supplement, along with animal studies with TT as a sole treatment across a number of species were included. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria, including one patent application. The results showed that trials varied in duration, dosage and supplementation with TT as sole or combined treatment, rendering meta-analysis impossible. A limited number of animal studies displayed a significant increase in serum testosterone levels after TT administration, but this effect was only noted in humans when TT was part of a combined supplement administration. Literature available for the effectiveness of TT on enhancing testosterone concentrations is limited. Evidence to date suggests that TT is ineffective for increasing testosterone levels in humans, thus marketing claims are unsubstantiated. The nitric oxide release effect of TT may offer a plausible explanation for the observed physiological responses to TT supplementation, independent of the testosterone level.

In vitro growth characteristics and volatile sulfur compound production of Solobacterium moorei.

Solobacterium moorei has recently been implicated as a causative agent of halitosis. In vitro experiments to evaluate the role of S. moorei in halitosis have, however, been complicated by a paucity of information on the ideal conditions for culturing this organism. This work aimed to optimize a liquid culture medium for S. moorei, and to determine the growth-curve of the organism. Further, the ability of S. moorei to generate volatile sulfur compounds was investigated and compared quantitatively to other oral anaerobes by an optimized head-space gas chromatography method. Serum-supplementation of standard liquid growth media gave greater growth of S. moorei than non-supplemented broths, with the best medium found to be serum-supplemented tryptone soya broth. S. moorei was able to metabolize cysteine directly to hydrogen sulfide, but was unable to produce methanethiol from methionine. S. moorei produced 2-3 times more hydrogen sulfide (normalized for colony forming units) than Porphyromonas gingivalis and Veillonella dispar, but considerably less than Fusobacterium nucleatum. The study has identified reliable growth conditions for culture of S. moorei, which were employed to show that S. moorei has the requisite biochemistry consistent with a potential role in halitosis.

An observational study reveals that neonatal vitamin D is primarily determined by maternal contributions: implications of a new assay on the roles of vitamin D forms.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D concentrations during pregnancy are measured to diagnose states of insufficiency or deficiency. The aim of this study is to apply accurate assays of vitamin D forms [single- hydroxylated [25(OH)D2, 25(OH)D3], double-hydroxylated [1α,25(OH)2D2, 1a25(OH)2D3], epimers [3-epi-25(OH)D2, 3-epi-25(OH)D3] in mothers (serum) and neonates (umbilical cord) to i) explore maternal and neonatal vitamin D biodynamics and ii) to identify maternal predictors of neonatal vitamin D concentrations. METHODS: All vitamin D forms were quantified in 60 mother- neonate paired samples by a novel liquid chromatography -mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) assay. Maternal characteristics [age, ultraviolet B exposure, dietary vitamin D intake, calcium, phosphorus and parathyroid hormone] were recorded. Hierarchical linear regression was used to predict neonatal 25(OH)D concentrations. RESULTS: Mothers had similar concentrations of 25(OH)D2 and 25(OH)D3 forms compared to neonates (17.9 ± 13.2 vs. 15.9 ± 13.6 ng/mL, p=0.289) with a ratio of 1:3. The epimer concentrations, which contribute approximately 25% to the total vitamin D levels, were similar in mothers and neonates (4.8 ± 7.8 vs. 4.5 ± 4.7 ng/mL, p=0.556). No correlation was observed in mothers between the levels of the circulating form (25OHD3) and its active form. Neonatal 25(OH)D2 was best predicted by maternal characteristics, whereas 25(OH)D3 was strongly associated to maternal vitamin D forms (R²=0.253 vs. 0.076 and R2=0.109 vs. 0.478, respectively). Maternal characteristics explained 12.2% of the neonatal 25(OH)D, maternal 25(OH)D concentrations explained 32.1%, while epimers contributed an additional 11.9%. CONCLUSIONS: By applying a novel highly specific vitamin D assay, the present study is the first to quantify 3-epi-25(OH)D concentrations in mother-newborn pairs. This accurate assay highlights a considerable proportion of vitamin D exists as epimers and a lack of correlation between the circulating and active forms. These results highlight the need for accurate measurements to appraise vitamin D status. Maternal characteristics and circulating forms of vitamin D, along with their epimers explain 56% of neonate vitamin D concentrations. The roles of active and epimer forms in the maternal-neonatal vitamin D relationship warrant further investigation.

The effect of copper(II), iron(II) sulphate, and vitamin C combinations on the weak antimicrobial activity of (+)-catechin against Staphylococcus aureus and other microbes.

Few attempts have been made to improve the activity of plant compounds with low antimicrobial efficacy. (+)-Catechin, a weak antimicrobial tea flavanol, was combined with putative adjuncts and tested against different species of bacteria. Copper(II) sulphate enhanced (+)-catechin activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa but not Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis or Escherichia coli. Attempts to raise the activity of (+)-catechin against two unresponsive species, S. aureus and E. coli, with iron(II) sulphate, iron(III) chloride, and vitamin C, showed that iron(II) enhanced (+)-catechin against S. aureus, but not E. coli; neither iron(III) nor combined iron(II) and copper(II), enhanced (+)-catechin activity against either species. Vitamin C enhanced copper(II) containing combinations against both species in the absence of iron(II). Catalase or EDTA added to active samples removed viability effects suggesting that active mixtures had produced H(2)O(2)via the action of added metal(II) ions. H(2)O(2) generation by (+)-catechin plus copper(II) mixtures and copper(II) alone could account for the principal effect of bacterial growth inhibition following 30 minute exposures as well as the antimicrobial effect of (+)-catechin-iron(II) against S. aureus. These novel findings about a weak antimicrobial flavanol contrast with previous knowledge of more active flavanols with transition metal combinations. Weak antimicrobial compounds like (+)-catechin within enhancement mixtures may therefore be used as efficacious agents. (+)-Catechin may provide a means of lowering copper(II) or iron(II) contents in certain crop protection and other products.

An investigation of the relationship between the anti-inflammatory activity, polyphenolic content, and antioxidant activities of cooked and in vitro digested culinary herbs.

There is little research on how cooking and digestion affect the anti-inflammatory activity of culinary herbs. Thus, the aim of this paper was to investigate this activity following cooking and in vitro digestion of the common culinary herbs, rosemary, sage, and thyme, and the relationship between their anti-inflammatory activity, polyphenol content, and antioxidant capacity. The anti-inflammatory activity of uncooked (U), cooked (C), cooked and in vitro digested (C&D), and standardised (STD, 30 mg/mL) culinary herbs was assessed by measuring their effect on interleukin 8 (IL-8) release from stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) and Caco-2 cells. The trolox equivalent capacity (TEAC) and estimated total phenolic content of the herbs were also determined. There was a significant decrease in IL-8 release from PBLs stimulated with H(2)O(2) incubated with (U), (C), (C&D), and (STD) herbs and from Caco-2 cells stimulated with TNFα incubated with (C&D) and (STD) herbs. PBLs pre-incubated with (C&D) herbs prior to stimulation (H(2)O(2) or TNFα) caused a significant inhibition in IL-8 release. The significant correlations between TEAC and estimated phenolic content and the anti-inflammatory activity suggest a possible contributory role of polyphenols to the anti-inflammatory activity of the culinary herbs investigated.

Dietary green and white teas suppress UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGT2B17 mediated testosterone glucuronidation.

The anabolic steroid testosterone can be used by athletes to enhance athletic performance and muscle growth. UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT2B17) is the key enzyme involved in the glucuronidation of testosterone to testosterone glucuronide, which also serves as a marker for the testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio used to detect testosterone abuse in sport. Inhibitors of testosterone glucuronidation could have an impact on circulating testosterone levels, thus aiding performance, as well as potentially affecting the urinary T/E ratio and therefore masking testosterone abuse. Previous reports have revealed that non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs, diclofenac and ibuprofen, inhibit the UGT2B17 enzyme. The aim of this study is to analyse dietary tea samples for inhibition of testosterone glucuronidation and, where inhibition is present, to identify the active compounds. Analysis of testosterone glucuronidation was conducted by performing UGT2B17 assays with detection of un-glucuronidated testosterone using high performance liquid chromatography. The results from this study showed that testosterone glucuronidation was inhibited by the green and white tea extracts, along with specific catechin compounds, notably: epicatechin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and catechin gallate. The IC50 inhibition value for EGCG was determined, using a Dixon plot, to be 64 µM, equalling the most active NSAID inhibitor diclofenac. Thus, common foodstuffs and their constituents, for the first time, have been identified as inhibitors of a key enzyme involved in testosterone glucuronidation. Whilst these common compounds are not substrates of the UGT2B17 enzyme, we showed that they inhibit testosterone glucuronidation which may have implications on current doping control in sport.

Enhancement of antimicrobial activities of whole and sub-fractionated white tea by addition of copper (II) sulphate and vitamin C against Staphylococcus aureus; a mechanistic approach.

BACKGROUND: Enhancement of antimicrobial plant products e.g. pomegranate extract by copper (II) sulphate is known. Such combinations have applications in various settings, including the identification of novel compositions to study, treat and control infection. METHODS: A combination of white tea (WT) (made allowing 10 minutes infusion time at 100°C) was combined with 4.8 mM copper (II) sulphate and tested for antimicrobial effect on the viability of Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 06571. Comparisons were made with green (GT) and black (BT) teas. A WT sub-fraction (WTF < 1000 Da) was tested with copper (II) sulphate and 4.8 mM vitamin C. pH measurements of samples were taken for controls and to observe any changes due to tea/agent interaction. Catalase was used to investigate hydrogen peroxide release. UV-vis. was used to compare WT and WTF. RESULTS: A 30 minute incubation at room temperature of copper (II) sulphate alone and combined with WT reduced the viability of S. aureus NCTC 06571 by c.a 1 log10 cfu mL-1. GT and BT with copper (II) sulphate negated activity to buffer values. Combined with copper (II) sulphate, vitamin C, WTF and, vitamin C plus WTF all reduced the viability of S. aureus NCTC 06571 by c.a. 3.5 log10 cfu mL-1. Independent experiments showed the results were not due to pH effects. Adding WT or WTF to copper (II) sulphate resulted in increased acidity. Copper (II) sulphate alone and combined with WT required c.a 300 µg mL-1 (final concentration) catalase to restore S. aureus viability, WTF with copper (II) sulphate and added vitamin C required c.a 600 µg mL-1. WT and WTF UV-visible spectra were similar. CONCLUSIONS: WT showed no efficacy in the combinations tested. WTF was enhanced with copper (II) sulphate and further with vitamin C. WT and WTF increased acidity of copper (II) sulphate possibly via the formation of chemical complexes. The difference in WT/WTF absorbance possibly represented substances less concentrated or absent in WTF. Investigations to establish which WTF component/s and in what proportions additives are most effective against target organisms are warranted.

Antioxidant and potential anti-inflammatory activity of extracts and formulations of white tea, rose, and witch hazel on primary human dermal fibroblast cells.

BACKGROUND: Numerous reports have identified therapeutic roles for plants and their extracts and constituents. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacies of three plant extracts for their potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity in primary human skin fibroblasts. METHODS: Aqueous extracts and formulations of white tea, witch hazel and rose were subjected to assays to measure anti-collagenase, anti-elastase, trolox equivalent and catalase activities. Skin fibroblast cells were employed to determine the effect of each extract/formulation on IL-8 release induced by the addition of hydrogen peroxide. Microscopic examination along with Neutral Red viability testing was employed to ascertain the effects of hydrogen peroxide directly on cell viability. RESULTS: Considerable anti-collagenase, anti-elastase, and antioxidant activities were measured for all extracts apart from the witch hazel distillate which showed no activity in the collagenase assay or in the trolox equivalence assay. All of the extracts and products tested elicited a significant decrease in the amount of IL-8 produced by fibroblast cells compared to the control (p < 0.05). None of the test samples exhibited catalase activity or had a significant effect on the spontaneous secretion of IL-8 in the control cells which was further corroborated with the microscopy results and the Neutral Red viability test. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that the extracts and products tested have a protective effect on fibroblast cells against hydrogen peroxide induced damage. This approach provides a potential method to evaluate the claims made for plant extracts and the products in which these extracts are found.

Inside athletes' minds: preliminary results from a pilot study on mental representation of doping and potential implications for anti-doping.

BACKGROUND: Despite the growing body of literature and putative links between the use of ergogenic nutritional supplements, doping and illicit drugs, it remains unclear whether, in athletes' minds, doping aligns with illicit behaviour or with functional use of chemical or natural preparations. To date, no attempt has been made to quantitatively explore athletes' mental representation of doping in relation to illegality and functionality. METHODS: A convenience sample of student athletes from a large South-Eastern Australian university responded to an on-line survey. Competitive athletes (n = 46) were grouped based on self-reported use as follows: i) none used (30%), ii) supplement only (22%), iii) illicit only (26%) and iv) both supplements and illicit drug use (22%). Whereas no athlete reported doping, data provided on projected supplement-, doping- and drug use by the four user groups allowed evaluation of doping-related cognition in the context of self-reported supplement- and illicit drug taking behaviour; and comparison between these substances. RESULTS: A significantly higher prevalence estimation was found for illicit drug use and a trend towards a biased social projection emerged for supplement use. Doping estimates by user groups showed mixed results, suggesting that doping had more in common with the ergogenic nutritional supplement domain than the illicit drug domain. CONCLUSIONS: Assessing the behavioural domain to which doping belongs to in athletes' mind would greatly advance doping behaviour research toward prevention and intervention. Further investigation refining the peculiarity of the mental representation of doping with a larger study sample, controlling for knowledge of doping and other factors, is warranted.

Incongruence in doping related attitudes, beliefs and opinions in the context of discordant behavioural data: in which measure do we trust?

BACKGROUND: Social psychology research on doping and outcome based evaluation of primary anti-doping prevention and intervention programmes have been dominated by self-reports. Having confidence in the validity and reliability of such data is vital. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The sample of 82 athletes from 30 sports (52.4% female, mean age: 21.48±2.86 years) was split into quasi-experimental groups based on i) self-admitted previous experience with prohibited performance enhancing drugs (PED) and ii) the presence of at least one prohibited PED in hair covering up to 6 months prior to data collection. Participants responded to questionnaires assessing a range of social cognitive determinants of doping via self-reports; and completed a modified version of the Brief Implicit Association Test (BIAT) assessing implicit attitudes to doping relative to the acceptable nutritional supplements (NS). Social projection regarding NS was used as control. PEDs were detected in hair samples from 10 athletes (12% prevalence), none of whom admitted doping use. This group of 'deniers' was characterised by a dissociation between explicit (verbal declarations) and implicit (BIAT) responding, while convergence was observed in the 'clean' athlete group. This dissociation, if replicated, may act as a cognitive marker of the denier group, with promising applications of the combined explicit-implicit cognitive protocol as a proxy in lieu of biochemical detection methods in social science research. Overall, discrepancies in the relationship between declared doping-related opinion and implicit doping attitudes were observed between the groups, with control measures remaining unaffected. Questionnaire responses showed a pattern consistent with self-reported doping use. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Following our preliminary work, this study provides further evidence that both self-reports on behaviour and social cognitive measures could be affected by some form of response bias. This can question the validity of self-reports, with reliability remaining unaffected. Triangulation of various assessment methods is recommended.

Metal ions affecting the gastrointestinal system including the liver.

In the present context, metal ions can be categorized into several classes including those that are essential for life and those that have no known biological function and thus can be considered only as potentially hazardous. Many complexities arise with regard to metal toxicity and there is a paucity of studies relating to many metals which are frequent components of the diet. For many people ingestion of mineral supplements is considered a risk-free health choice despite growing evidence to the contrary. Numerous approaches have been developed to assess risk associated with ingestion of metal ions. These include straightforward estimation of safe limits such as oral reference dose which are often based on data derived from animal experiments. More convoluted approaches such as the Target Hazard Quotient involve assessment of hazard with frequent exposure over long durations such as a lifetime. The latter calculation also affords facile consideration of the effects of many metals together. In many cases, rigorous data are unavailable, hence, large factors of uncertainty are employed to relate risk to humans. Owing to the nature of metal toxicity, data pertaining to the gastrointestinal tract and liver are often acquired from diseases of metal homeostasis or episodes of considerable metal overload. Whilst these studies provide evidence for mechanisms of metal-induced toxicity such as enhancing oxidative stress, extrapolation of these results to healthy individuals or patients with chronic inflammatory diseases is not straightforward. In summary, the diverse nature of metals and their effects on human tissues along with a paucity of studies on the full range of their effects, warrant further in-depth studies on the association of metals to ageing, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cancer.

Anti-collagenase, anti-elastase and anti-oxidant activities of extracts from 21 plants.

BACKGROUND: Owing to their roles in tissue remodelling in health and disease, several studies have reported investigations on plant extracts as inhibitors of proteinases and as anti-oxidants. METHODS: The anti-ageing and anti-oxidant properties of 23 plant extracts (from 21 plant species) were assessed as anti-elastase and anti-collagenase activities and in selected anti-oxidant assays along with phenolic content. RESULTS: Anti-elastase activities were observed for nine of the extracts with inhibitory activity in the following order: white tea (approximately 89%), cleavers (approximately 58%), burdock root (approximately 51%), bladderwrack (approximately 50%), anise and angelica (approximately 32%). Anti-collagenase activities were exhibited by sixteen plants of which the highest activity was seen in white tea (approximately 87%), green tea (approximately 47%), rose tincture (approximately 41%), and lavender (approximately 31%). Nine plant extracts had activities against both elastase (E) and collagenase (C) and were ranked in the order of white tea (E:89%, C:87%) > bladderwrack (E:50%, C:25%) > cleavers (E:58%, C:7%) > rose tincture (E:22%, C:41%) > green tea (E:10%: C:47%) > rose aqueous (E: 24%, C:26%) > angelica (E:32%, C:17%) > anise (E:32%, C:6%) > pomegranate (E:15%, C:11%).Total phenolic content varied between 0.05 and 0.26 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/mL with the exception of white tea (0.77 mg GAE/mL). For anti-oxidant assessment, the Trolox equivalent anti-oxidant capacity (TEAC) assay revealed activity for all extracts. White tea had the highest activity equivalent to approximately 21 microM Trolox for a 6.25 microg aliquot. In addition, seven extracts exhibited activities = 10 microM Trolox with witch hazel (6.25 microg = 13 microM Trolox) and rose aqueous (6.25 microg = 10 microM Trolox) showing very high activities at low concentrations. A high activity for white tea was also found in the superoxide dismutase (SOD) assay in which it exhibited ~88% inhibition of reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium. High activities were also observed for green tea (86.41%), rose tincture (82.77%), witch hazel (82.05%) and rose aqueous (73.86%). CONCLUSION: From a panel of twenty three plant extracts, some one dozen exhibit high or satisfactory anti-collagenase or anti-elastase activities, with nine having inhibitory activity against both enzymes. These included white tea which was found to have very high phenolic content, along with high TEAC and SOD activities.

Anti-microbial activities of pomegranate rind extracts: enhancement by cupric sulphate against clinical isolates of S. aureus, MRSA and PVL positive CA-MSSA.

BACKGROUND: Recently, natural products have been evaluated as sources of antimicrobial agents with efficacies against a variety of micro-organisms. METHODS: This report describes the antimicrobial activities of pomegranate rind extract (PRE) singularly and in combination with cupric sulphate against methicillin-sensitive and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA, MRSA respectively), and Panton-Valentine Leukocidin positive community acquired MSSA (PVL positive CA-MSSA). RESULTS: PRE alone showed limited efficacy against MRSA and MSSA strains. Exposure to copper (II) ions alone for 2 hours resulted in moderate activity of between 102 to 103 log10 cfu mL-1 reduction in growth. This was enhanced by the addition of PRE to 104 log10 cfu mL-1 reduction in growth being observed in 80% of the isolates. However, the PVL positive CA-MSSA strains were more sensitive to copper (II) ions which exhibited moderate activities of between 103 log10 cfu mL-1 reduction in growth for 60% of the isolates. CONCLUSION: PRE, in combination with Cu(II) ions, was seen to exhibit moderate antimicrobial effects against clinical isolates of MSSA, MRSA and PVL positive CA-MSSA isolates. The results of this study indicate that further investigation into the active ingredients of natural products, their mode of action and potential synergism with other antimicrobial agents is warranted. This is the first report of the efficacy of pomegranate against clinical PVL positive CA-MSSA isolates.