Gastroprotective Activities of Aqueous and 80% Methanol Leaf Extracts of Stephania abyssinica (Quart.-Dill. and A. Rich.) Walp. (Menispermaceae) in Rats.

Background: An ethnobotanical study showed that the leaf of Stephania abyssinica (S. abyssinica) is used for the treatment of gastritis, but there is no scientific investigation. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the gastroprotective activities of both aqueous and 80% methanol leaf extracts of S. abyssinica in experimental rats. Methods: Decoction and maceration techniques were used to prepare aqueous and 80% methanol leaf extracts, respectively. The extracts were evaluated against pyloric ligation, indomethacin, and ethanol-induced gastric ulcer models at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg. Negative control received 2% tween 80, while positive controls received 20 mg/kg of omeprazole and 100 µg/kg of misoprostol. Parameters, such as ulcer index, gastric mucin content, gastric juice volume, pH, and free and total acidity were measured. Results: In the pyloric ligation induced gastric ulcer model, all doses of both extracts significantly reduced the ulcer index and gastric juice volume, while doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg exhibited a significant increment in mucus content and gastric juice pH as well as decrease in free and total acidity as compared to negative control. In indomethacin and ethanol induced gastric ulcer models, pretreatment with both extracts significantly reduced the ulcer index and enhanced gastric mucin content in a dose-dependent manner. Phytochemical screening of both extracts showed the existence of flavonoids, phenols, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, and coumarins with high contents of phenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids in 80% methanol extract. Conclusion: This study revealed that aqueous and 80% methanol leaf extracts of S. abyssinica possessed remarkable gastroprotective activities against experimentally induced gastric ulcer models, and this possibly justify the traditional use of S. abyssinica leaves to treat gastritis.

Antidiarrheal and Antibacterial Activities of Calpurnia aurea: Benth Seed Different Extracts.

Background: Calpurnia aurea is believed to have antidiarrheal potential but with limited scientific evidence. This study aimed investigating antidiarrheal and antibacterial activity of aqueous and 80% methanol seed extracts of the plant in mice and selected diarrhea-causing bacterial strains, respectively. Methods: Castor oil-induced diarrhea, prostaglandin-induced enteropooling, and castor oil-induced charcoal meal test models in mice of either sex using three dose levels (60, 120, and 240 mg/kg) were applied to evaluate antidiarrheal activity. Parameters, including onset, number, wet stool weight, weight and volume of secretion, and intestinal motility, were taken into consideration. The antibacterial activity was assessed on Shigella soni, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa using disk diffusion and microdilution techniques. Results: Compared to controls, pretreatment of mice at the graded dose (60, 120, and 240 mg/kg) resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) drop in frequency of wet stools and watery content of diarrhea as well as in delaying onset of diarrhea. Both extracts exhibited inhibition of diarrhea in a dose-dependent manner in all models used. The extracts also showed significant (p < 0.05) reduction in intestinal motility in castor oil-induced models. Both extracts showed a marginal activity against the selected bacterial strains; a better effect was seen with 80% methanol seed extract. Conclusion: Both extracts of the plant have beneficial effect in controlling diarrhea. This finding supports the use of the plant as a traditional antidiarrheal remedy.

Evaluation of the Antimalarial Activity of the Hydroalcoholic Extract of Leaf of Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm. f.) Iwarsson (Lamiaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in Mice.

Malaria's global impact, fueled by resistance to several antimalarial drugs, has necessitated a quest to new antimalarial drugs from several sources with traditional medicinal plants being one of them. This study was conducted to assess the antimalarial activity of a traditionally used medicinal plant, Leonotis ocymifolia, against Plasmodium berghei. The plant has been extracted using maceration technique, and doses ranging from 100-800 mg/kg of Leonotis ocymifolia were used to test its antimalarial activity. Tween 80 (2% in water) and chloroquine 25 mg/kg were used as negative and positive controls, respectively. The antimalarial activities of the plant were determined by measuring parasitemia, survival time, packed cell volume, temperature, and weight. The plant's hydroalcoholic extract, as compared to negative control, maximally decreased parasite load by 41.4% at 800 mg/kg (p < 0.001). This parasite suppression was followed by longer survival time in the groups taking 400 mg/kg (p < 0.05) and 800 mg/kg (p < 0.05) in a four-day suppressive test and in those taking 800 mg/kg (p < 0.05) in Rane's test. The plant did not prevent weight and PCV reduction but prevented temperature reduction at 400 mg/kg (p < 0.05) and 800 mg/kg (p < 0.05) in a four-day suppressive model, and at 800 mg/kg (p < 0.05) in Rane's model. The average but consistent antimalarial activity of the plant across the test models corroborates the folkloric antimalarial use of the plant. The study recommends further pharmacological screenings, isolation, and identification of active compound(s) of the plant Leonotis ocymifolia.

Antimalarial activity of the aqueous extract of the latex of Aloe pirottae Berger. (Aloaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in mice.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In spite of worldwide efforts, malaria remains one of the most devastating illnesses in the world. The huge number of lives it takes and the resistance of malaria parasites to current drugs necessitate the search for new effective antimalarial drugs. Medicinal plants have been the major source of such drugs and A. pirottae is one of these plants used traditionally for the treatment of malaria in Ethiopia. AIM: This study was aimed at evaluating the antimalarial activity of the aqueous extract of A. pirottae against chloroquine sensitive P. berghei in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The extract was obtained by macerating the latex of A. pirottae with distilled water. To determine its antiplasmodial activity, a 4-day suppressive model was used by dividing 40 mice into five groups of 8 mice each and given 200, 400 & 600mg/kg of the extract, the standard drug (chloroquine 25mg/kg) and the vehicle (distilled water). Then parasite suppression by the extract, survival time and prevention of loss of body weight, rectal temperature and packed cell volume were assessed. All data were presented as the Mean ±â€¯SEM (Standard Error of the Mean) and analyzed using IBM SPSS version 20. RESULTS: The extract showed moderate antimalarial activity by significantly (p < 0.001) suppressing parasitemia at all dose levels with maximum parasitemia suppression of 47.0% and significantly (p < 0.01) increasing survival time. Furthermore, 400 mg/kg and 600 mg/kg doses showed significant (p < 0.01) prevention of loss in body weight, rectal temperature and packed cell volume. CONCLUSION: Based to the results of this study, A. pirottae is endowed with a moderate antimalarial activity that is in agreement with the traditional claim of A. pirottae, hence may be used as a basis for further studies to be conducted on antimalarial activity of the plant.

Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous and 80% Methanol Crude Seed Extracts and Solvent Fractions of Schinus molle Linnaeus (Anacardiaceae) in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is among the leading causes of mortality and morbidity. Moreover, the emergence of resistance to antimalarial drugs is a major problem in controlling the disease. This makes the development of novel antimalarial drugs a necessity. Medicinal plants are important sources in discovering antimalarial drugs. Schinus molle is claimed for its antimalarial effect in Ethiopian folkloric medicine and endowed with in vitro antiplasmodial activity. In the present study, the in vivo antimalarial activity of the plant was investigated. METHODS: Acute toxicity was carried out using a standard procedure. To screen the in vivo antimalarial activity of the plant was investigated. S. molle against Plasmodium berghei (ANKA), a 4-day suppressive test was employed. The extracts and fractions were given to infected mice by oral gavage at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg/day for four consecutive days. Parameters such as parasitemia were then evaluated. RESULTS: Any sign of toxicity was not observed in the oral acute toxicity test. The crude extracts and solvent fractions exerted a significant (p < 0.05) inhibition of parasite load compared to the negative control. The highest inhibition (66.91%) was exhibited by the 400 mg/kg/day dose of 80% methanolic crude extract. Among the fractions, chloroform fraction demonstrated maximal chemosuppressive effect (55.60%). Moreover, crude extracts and solvent fractions prevented body weight loss, reduction in temperature, and anemia compared to the negative control. Except the aqueous fraction, the tested plant extracts were able to significantly prolong the survival time of infected mice. CONCLUSION: The findings of the present study confirmed the safety and a promising in vivo antimalarial activity of S. molle, thus supporting the traditional claim and in vitro efficacy. In-depth investigations on the plant, however, are highly recommended.in vivo antimalarial activity of the plant was investigated. S. molle against in vitro antiplasmodial activity. In the present study, the.

Evaluation of the anti-malarial activity of crude extract and solvent fractions of the leaves of Olea europaea (Oleaceae) in mice.

BACKGROUND: Drug resistance poses a challenge to malaria control measures. This calls for discovery & development of new chemotherapeutic agents. This study therefore was initiated to investigate the antimalarial activity of Olea europaea against Plasmodium berghei infected mice and to further ascertain in which fraction (s) the constituents responsible for anti-malarial activity are concentrated. METHODS: The leaves of Olea europaea were extracted by maceration using 80% methanol and the crude extract was then successively fractionated with solvents of differing polarity (chloroform, n-butanol and water). The anti-malarial activity of various doses of the extract and fractions (200, 400 and 600 mg/kg) was evaluated using chemo-suppressive, curative, and repository tests. Parameters, including parasitemia, rectal temperature, body weight, and packed cell volume were determined to establish the activity. RESULTS: The acute oral toxicity test result revealed that the LD50 values of the extract and fractions were greater than 2000 mg/kg in mice. The crude extract significantly reduced parasitemia (p < 0.001) and prolonged survival time (p < 0.001), in a dose-dependent manner, in all tests, as compared to the negative control group. Higher parasitemia suppression (58%) was achieved with the larger dose (600 mg/kg) in the 4-day suppressive test, suggesting that the crude extract has largely a chemo-suppressive activity. Parasitemia was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by all fractions in all doses used when compared to the negative controls, with the rank order of n-butanol (51%) > chloroform>aqueous (21%) fractions. Larger (600 mg/kg) and middle (400 mg/kg) doses of the crude extract as well as the fractions ameliorated all the other parameters in a consistent manner, with the crude being more active than the fractions. Preliminary phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of secondary metabolites that were differentially distributed in the fractions. CONCLUSION: The findings collectively indicate that the plant is endowed with antimalarial activity, the activity being more in the crude extract than the fractions, owing to the presence of secondary metabolites that act independently or in synergy. The varying degree of antimalarial activity in the fractions suggests that non-polar and medium polar principles could be responsible for the observed activity.

In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of the 80% Methanolic Root Bark Extract and Solvent Fractions of Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. (Rubiaceae) against Plasmodium berghei.

BACKGROUND: Evolution of antimalarial drug resistance makes the development of new drugs a necessity. Important source in search of such drugs is medicinal plants. Gardenia ternifolia plant is used in Ethiopian traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria and is endowed with in vitro antimalarial activity. Herein, the in vivo antimalarial activity of the plant was investigated. METHODS: Acute toxicity was carried out using a standard procedure. A 4-day suppressive test was employed to evaluate the antimalarial effect of methanolic crude extract and solvent fractions of the plant. The curative and prophylactic effect of crude extract was further tested by Ranes's test and residual infection procedure, respectively, using Plasmodium berghei (ANKA strain) in Swiss albino mice. RESULTS: The chemosuppressive effect exerted by the crude extract and fractions ranged between 30-59% and 14-51%, respectively. Curative and prophylactic effects of the crude extract were in the range of 36-63% and 24-37%, respectively. All dose levels of the crude extract prevented loss of weight, reduction in temperature, and anemia on early and established infection. Butanol and chloroform fractions also did reverse reduction in temperature, body weight, and packed cell volume. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that the plant has a promising antiplasmodial activity and it could be considered as a potential source to develop new antimalarial agents.

Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of 80% Methanol Extract of Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson Leaves in Rodent Models.

BACKGROUND: Pain and inflammation are the major health problems commonly treated with traditional remedies mainly using medicinal plants. Leonotis ocymifolia is one of such medicinal plants used in folkloric medicine of Ethiopia. However, the plant has not been scientifically evaluated. The aim of this study was to evaluate analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the 80% methanol leaves extract of Leonotis ocymifolia using rodent models. METHOD: The central and peripheral analgesic effect of the extract at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg dose levels was evaluated using hot plate and acetic acid induced writhing rodent models, whereas carrageenan induced paw edema and cotton pellet granuloma methods were used to screen anti-inflammatory effect of the extract at the same dose levels. Acute toxicity test was also done. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test and p < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: The extract did not produce mortality up to 2000 mg/kg. All tested doses of the extract showed significant analgesic effect with maximum latency response of 62.8% and inhibition of acetic acid induced writhing. Maximum anti-inflammatory effect was recorded at 6 h after induction, with 75.88% reduction in carrageenan induced paw edema. Moreover, all tested doses of extract significantly inhibited the formation of inflammatory exudates and granuloma formation (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The study indicated that the extract was safe in mice and it has both analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect in rodent models.

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of solvent fractions of the leaves of Moringa stenopetala Bak. (Moringaceae) in mice models.

BACKGROUND: Many people still experience pain and inflammation regardless of the available drugs for treatments. In addition, the available drugs have many side effects, which necessitated a quest for new drugs from several sources in which medicinal plants are the major one. This study evaluated the analgesic and anti- inflammatory activity of the solvent fractions of Moringa stenopetala in rodent models of pain and inflammation. METHODS: Successive soxhlet and maceration were used as methods of extractions using solvents of increasing polarity; chloroform, methanol and water. Swiss albino mice models were used in radiant tail flick latency, acetic acid induced writhing and carrageenan induced paw edema to assess the analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. The test groups received different doses (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg) of the three fractions (chloroform, methanol and aqueous). The positive control groups received morphine (20 mg/kg) or aspirin (100 mg/kg or 150 mg/kg) based on the respective models. The negative control groups received the 10 ml/kg of vehicles (distilled water or 2% Tween 80). RESULTS: In all models, the chloroform fraction had protections only at a dose of 400 mg/kg. However, the methanol and aqueous fraction at all doses have shown significant central and peripheral analgesic activities with a comparable result to the standards. The aqueous and methanol fractions significantly reduced carrageenan induced inflammation in a dose dependent manner, in which the highest reduction of inflammation was observed in aqueous fraction at 400 mg/kg. CONCLUSION: This study provided evidence on the traditionally claimed uses of the plant in pain and inflammatory diseases, and Moringa stenopetala could be potential source for development of new analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Evaluation of the anti-diarrheal activity of the aqueous stem extract of Lantana camara Linn (Verbenaceae) in mice.

BACKGROUND: Diarrheal disease remains a public health problem in developing countries, including Ethiopia. In order to alleviate this disease, Ethiopian traditional healers use a wide range of medicinal plants from which Lantana camara is one of them. The stem of this plant is traditionally used for the treatment of diarrhoea. In addition, this plant is scientifically evaluated to have an antispasmodic effect on in vitro study. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antidiarrheal activity of the aqueous stem extract of L. camara Linn in mice. METHODS: The antidiarrheal activity of the extract was investigated using castor oil induced diarrhoea, enteropooling and small intestine transit models. The test groups received various doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) of the extract, whereas positive controls received Loperamide (3 mg/kg) and negative controls received distilled water (10 ml/kg). RESULTS: In castor oil induced diarrhoea model, the extract, at all test doses, significantly (p < 0.001) prolonged diarrhoea onset, decreased the frequency of defecation, and weight of faeces. Similarly, the extract produced a significant (p < 0.001) decline in the weight and volume of intestinal contents at all tested doses. In addition, a significant (P < 0.001) reduction in the gastrointestinal motility in charcoal meal test was also observed in all doses of the extract. Phytochemical screening of the extract revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and phytosterols that may play a key role in its antidiarrheal activity. CONCLUSION: The obtained results of the present study confirm antidiarrheal activity of the stem of L. camara, thus provide the scientific basis for the traditional uses of this plant as a treatment for diarrhoea.

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of 80% methanol root extract of Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex. Dc. (Oleaceae) in mice.

BACKGROUND: Pain and inflammation are associated with the pathophysiology of various clinical conditions. Most analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs available in the market present a wide range of problems. The current study was aimed at investigating the analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of 80% methanol extract of J. abyssinicum root. METHODS: The analgesic activity was determined using tail-flick test and acetic acid induced writhing, whereas anti-inflammatory activity was determined by carrageenan induced paw edema and formalin induced pedal edema, carried out in vivo. The test group received three different doses of the extract (50mg/kg, 100mg/kg and 200mg/kg) orally. The positive control group received diclofenac (10mg/kg), aspirin (100mg/kg or 150mg/kg) or morphine (20mg/kg) orally. The negative control group received vehicle (2% Tween 80, 10ml/kg) orally. Furthermore, preliminary phytochemical screening was carried out. RESULTS: Oral administration of J. abbysinicum 80% methanol extract (at all doses) significantly (p<0.001) inhibit pain sensation in the pain models. Similarly, the extract demonstrated anti-inflammatory effect in the inflammation models in mice. Preliminary phytochemical screening showed the presence of saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, triterpenens and glycosides. CONCLUSION: The data obtained from the present study indicates that the extract possessed a significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity, upholding the folkloric use of the plant.

Evaluation of the diuretic activity of the aqueous and 80% methanol extracts of the root of Euclea divinorum Hiern (Ebenaceae) in Sprague Dawley rats.

BACKGROUND: Diuretics are drugs that increase the formation of urine and are important for the treatment of various diseases including hypertension and edema. The root decoction of Euclea divinorum has been used as a diuretic agent in the traditional medicine. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the diuretic activity of the crude extracts of the roots of Euclea divinorum in Sprague Dawley rats. METHODS: The aqueous extract (AE) and 80% methanol extract (80ME) of the plant were prepared using decoction and maceration, respectively. Vehicle (distilled water, 10ml/kg), standard drug (hydrochlorothiazide, 10mg/kg) and three doses (100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 400mg/kg) of the AE and 80ME were given to male rats by oral gavage. Parameters like urine volume (for 5h), electrolyte concentration and pH were measured (at 5th h) and analyzed. Data were analyzed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey post hoc test. Linear regression was also applied to show the dose dependency nature of the diuretic effect. RESULTS: The result indicated that the 80ME of the plant significantly (p<0.05) produced diuresis at 200mg/kg and 400mg/kg. Furthermore, the AE produced significant diuresis (p<0.05) at all doses. With regard to the electrolyte excretion, the AE produced significant natriuresis and kaliuresis at all tested doses (p<0.001), while the 80ME showed significant natriuresis and kaliuresis at 200mg/kg (p<0.01) and 400mg/kg (p<0.001). Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed the presence of secondary metabolites, including saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, tannins and terpinoids in both extracts. These constituents might be responsible for the diuretic activity of Euclea divinorum. Both extracts were also found to be safe at 2000mg/kg on the acute toxicity study. CONCLUSION: This finding provides a scientific support for the acclaimed traditional use of the roots of Euclea divinorum as a diuretic agent.

Antidiarrheal activity of 80 % methanol extract of the aerial part of Ajuga remota Benth (Lamiaceae) in mice.

BACKGROUND: In the Ethiopian traditional medicine, the aerial part of Ajuga remota Benth is used in the treatment of diarrhea. There are different mechanisms by which Ajuga remota may have antidiarrheal effect. Some of the possible mechanisms are through its anthelmintic and antibacterial activity. The present study aimed to evaluate whether the antidiarrheal effect of the plant also include antimotility and antisecretory effect using 80 % methanol extract of A. remota (MEAR). METHODS: The MEAR was administered at doses of 200, 400, 600 and 800 mg/kg to four groups of mice (six animals per group) orally in castor oil diarrhea model. The effect of the extract on enteropooling and gastrointestinal transit model was also evaluated using the same grouping and dosing. Two other groups, one as control and the other as standard (loperamide 5 mg/kg) were used for comparison with the treatment groups. RESULTS: The extract at the doses of 400, 600, and 800 mg/kg produced a dose-dependent and significant inhibition both on the frequency and onset of diarrhea. The percentage purging frequency was 53.4, 66.7, 79.6, and 66.7 % (p < 0.001) at three doses of MEAR (400, 600, and 800 mg/kg) and with loperamide (5 mg/kg), respectively. The percentage inhibition in intestinal fluid accumulation was 42.5, 62.1, and 74.2 % (p < 0.001) at the doses of 400, 600 and 800 mg/kg of MEAR, respectively. The MEAR also inhibited the intestinal transit of charcoal meal in a dose dependent manner both in the normal and castor oil induced intestinal transit. CONCLUSION: This study has shown that the 80 % methanol extract of A. remota contains pharmacologically active substances with significant antimotility and antisecretory effect contributing for its antidiarrheal activity.

Evaluation of the in vitro antibacterial activity of the solvent fractions of the leaves of Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit (Rhamnaceae) against pathogenic bacteria.

BACKGROUND: Medicinal plants play great roles in the treatment of various infectious diseases. Rhamnus prinoides is one of the medicinal plants used traditionally for treatment of bacterial diseases. The antibacterial activity of the crude extract of the plant had been shown by a previous study, but this study was undertaken to further the claimed medicinal use of the plant by screening its solvent fractions for the said activity so that it could serve as a basis for subsequent studies. METHODS: The solvent fractions of the plant were obtained by successive soxhlet extraction with solvents of increasing polarity, with chloroform and methanol, followed by maceration of the marc of methanol fraction with water. The antibacterial activity of the solvent fractions was evaluated on seven bacterial species using agar well diffusion method at different concentrations (78 mg/well, 39 mg/well and 19.5 mg/well) in the presence of positive and negative controls. The minimum inhibitory concentration of the solvent fractions was determined by micro-broth dilution method using resazurin as indicator. RESULT: Methanol and chloroform fractions revealed antibacterial activities against the growth of test bacterial strains with varying antibacterial spectrum and the susceptible bacterial species were Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogen, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Salmonella typhi. The average minimum inhibitory concentration value of the methanol and chloroform fractions ranged from 8.13 mg/ml to 32.5 mg/ml and from 8.13 mg/ml to 16.25 mg/ml, respectively. CONCLUSION: The methanol and chloroform fractions demonstrated significant antibacterial activities against the growth of pathogenic bacteria but the aqueous fraction did not reveal antibacterial activity against any of the test bacteria.

Diuretic effect of the crude extracts of Carissa edulis in rats.

Carissa edulis (forssk) vahl (Apocynaceae) is used traditionally for the treatment of headache, chest complaints, rheumatism, gonorrhoea, syphilis, rabies and as a diuretic. In the present study, the diuretic activity of different extracts of Carissa edulis was investigated. The diuretic activity of the different extracts of Carissa edulis in a dose range of 50-1000 mg/kg was assessed orally in rats using hydrochlorothiazide as a standard drug. The root bark maceration extract showed no effect on the urine output up to a dose of 1000 mg/kg, while the root bark soxhlet extract produced a significant increase (P < 0.05) in urine output at a dose of 1000 mg/kg. The root wood maceration and root wood soxhlet extracts produced a significant increase in urine output at a dose of 50 mg/kg, with a P-value of <0.05. Urinary electrolyte excretion was also affected by the extracts: the root bark soxhlet extract increased urinary excretion of sodium, potassium and chloride ions; root wood maceration extract increased excretion of sodium and potassium, while root wood soxhlet extract increased excretion of potassium ion. These findings support the traditional use of Carissa edulis as a diuretic agent.