Mediating factors in martial arts and combat sports: an analysis of the type of martial art, characteristics, and social background of young participants.

To date, most studies regarding the social-psychological effects of martial arts and combat sports (MA&CS) on young people focus on measuring effects without considering mediating factors. The aim of the present study was to analyze three mediating factors that might be influential when examining outcomes of MA&CS for youth (i.e., the type of MA&CS, participants' characteristics, and social background). Young MA&CS participants (N = 477, M age = 14.0 yr., SD = 2.13) practicing judo, aikido, kick-/Thai boxing or karate, as well as their parents (N = 307), were assessed in terms of their goal orientations, aggressiveness, psychosocial behavior, and social background. It was concluded that differences exist in the characteristics and social background of participants depending on the type of MA&CS being practiced. The fact that differences in these mediating factors can be identified indicates that in future research these and possible other mediating factors should be considered when trying to determine social-psychological outcomes of MA&CS.

Physical and physiological profiles of taekwondo athletes.

Taekwondo has evolved into a modern-day Olympic combat sport. The physical and physiological demands of modern-day taekwondo competition require athletes to be competent in several aspects of fitness. This review critically explores the physical and physiological characteristics of taekwondo athletes and presents implications for training and research. International taekwondo athletes possess low levels of body fat and a somatotype that characterises a blend of moderate musculoskeletal tissue and relative body linearity. While there is some variation in the maximum oxygen uptake of taekwondo athletes, moderate to high levels of cardio-respiratory fitness are necessary to support the metabolic demands of fighting and to facilitate recovery between consecutive matches. Taekwondo athletes demonstrate high peak anaerobic power characteristics of the lower limbs and this attribute appears to be conducive to achieving success in international competition. The ability to generate and sustain power output using both concentric and 'stretch-shortening cycle' muscle actions of the lower limbs may be important to support the technical and tactical actions in combat. Taekwondo competitors also display moderate to high maximum dynamic strength characteristics of the lower and upper extremities, and moderate endurance properties of the trunk and hip flexor musculature. The dynamic nature of the technical and tactical actions in the sport demand high flexibility of the lower limbs. More extensive research is required into the physical and physiological characteristics of taekwondo athletes to extend existing knowledge and to permit specialised conditioning for different populations within the sport.

Safety performance evaluation of taekwondo headgear.

BACKGROUND: With over 20 years of taekwondo concussion research highlighting the high incidence of injury, previous studies recommend an investigation of headgear impact attenuation performance. OBJECTIVE: To examine impact attenuation differences between the anterior, posterior and sides of selected taekwondo headgear brands. DESIGN: Between-groups. SETTING: Biomechanics laboratory. METHODS: Five different commercially available taekwondo headgear were selected for impact testing. A 50th percentile Hybrid II Dummy Crash Test head and neck was fitted with the selected helmet and was bolted to a 25 kg steel torso-like structure. Each headgear model was impacted eight times to the anterior, posterior and sides by a 6.75 kg bowling ball at three heights to produce 52.25, 85 and 144 J strikes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Resultant head linear acceleration. RESULTS: Two-way (Helmet×Location) mixed analysis of variance with repeated measures on the second factor was performed to determine the differences between headgear by location of impact. There was a two-way (Helmet×Location) interaction for acceleration (η(2)=0.368). CONCLUSIONS: Taekwondo headgear manufacturers and sport governing bodies must consider improving the design of especially anterior helmet properties.

Effects of Olympic-style taekwondo kicks on an instrumented head-form and resultant injury measures.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess the effect of taekwondo kicks and peak foot velocity (FVEL) on resultant head linear acceleration (RLA), head injury criterion (HIC15) and head velocity (HVEL). METHODS: Each subject (n=12) randomly performed five repetitions of the turning kick (TK), clench axe kick (CA), front leg axe kick, jump back kick (JB) and jump spinning hook kick (JH) at the average standing head height for competitors in their weight division. A Hybrid II Crash Test Dummy head was fitted with a protective taekwondo helmet and instrumented with a triaxial accelerometer and fixed to a height-adjustable frame. Resultant head linear acceleration, HVEL, FVEL data were captured and processed using Qualysis Track Manager. RESULTS: The TK (130.11 ± 51.67 g) produced a higher RLA than the CA (54.95 ± 20.08 g, p<0.001, d=1.84) and a higher HIC15 than the JH (672.74 ± 540.89 vs 300.19 ± 144.35, p<0.001, ES=0.97). There was no difference in HVEL of the TK (4.73 ± 1.67 m/s) and that of the JB (4.43 ± 0.78 m/s; p=0.977, ES<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The TK is of concern because it is the most common technique and cause of concussion in taekwondo. Future studies should aim to understand rotational accelerations of the head.

Competition injuries in taekwondo: a literature review and suggestions for prevention and surveillance.

OBJECTIVE: To review competition injuries in taekwondo and use this information to develop recommendations to reduce the number and severity of injuries in taekwondo competition. METHODS: The available literature was searched for prospective studies on taekwondo injuries in adult athletes. An injury was defined as any circumstance for which the athlete sought the assistance of the on-site medical personnel. Injury rates were expressed per athlete-exposures (A-E) and 95% CIs calculated. RESULTS: Total injury rates for elite men varied from 20.6/1000 A-E (95% CI 11.8 to 29.3) to 139.5/1000 A-E (95% CI 94.0 to 185.1). For elite women, the rates varied from 25.3/1000 A-E (95% CI 3.1 to 47.4) to 105.5/1000 A-E (95% CI 89.8 to 121.1). About one-third of all injuries (29.6%) in the men were to the head and neck region, while almost half of the injuries (44.5%) were to the lower extremities. In women, 15.2% of injuries were to the head and neck and 53.1% to the lower extremities. The vast majority of all injuries were contusions (42.7% in the men and 62.7% in the women). Point estimates of rates of head injuries and concussions were found to be higher in taekwondo than in other contact sports such as football (soccer) and American gridiron football. Time-loss injury rates in the men varied from 6.9/1000 A-E (95% CI 1.8 to 11.9) to 33.6/1000 A-E (95% CI 18.9 to 48.3). In the women, they varied from 2.4/1000 A-E (95% CI 2.3 to 7.2) to 23.0/1000 A-E (95% CI 15.7 to 30.4). The turning kick was most often involved in causing injury: 56.9% of all injuries in the men and 49.8% in the women. Lack of blocking skills was identified as one of the main injury mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS: Rule changes should be considered and it is recommended that governing bodies employ qualified medical personnel. Establishing an ongoing injury surveillance system in taekwondo should be the first priority.

Martial arts injuries.

OBJECTIVE: To review the current evidence for the epidemiology of pediatric injuries in martial arts. DATA SOURCES: The relevant literature was searched using SPORT DISCUS (keywords: martial arts injuries, judo injuries, karate injuries, and taekwondo injuries and ProQuest (keywords: martial arts, taekwondo, karate, and judo), as well as hand searches of the reference lists. MAIN RESULTS: In general, the absolute number of injuries in girls is lower than in boys. However, when expressed relative to exposure, the injury rates of girls are higher. Injuries by body region reflect the specific techniques and rules of the martial art. The upper extremities tend to get injured more often in judo, the head and face in karate and the lower extremities in taekwondo. Activities engaged in at the time of injury included performing a kick or being thrown in judo, while punching in karate, and performing a roundhouse kick in taekwondo. Injury type tends to be martial art specific with sprains reported in judo and taekwondo and epistaxis in karate. Injury risk factors in martial arts include age, body weight and exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Preventive measures should focus on education of coaches, referees, athletes, and tournament directors. Although descriptive research should continue, analytical studies are urgently needed.

Injuries at the Canadian National Tae Kwon Do Championships: a prospective study.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this prospective study was to assess the injury rates in male and female adult Canadian Taekwondo athletes relative to total number of injuries, type and body part injured. METHODS: Subjects (219 males, 99 females) participated in the 1997 Canadian National Taekwondo Championships in Toronto, Canada. Injuries were recorded on an injury form to documents any injury seen and treatment provided by the health care team. These data were later used for this study. The injury form describes the athlete and nature, site, severity and mechanism of the injury. RESULTS: The overall rate of injuries was 62.9/1,000 athlete-exposures (A-E). The males (79.9/1,000 A-E) sustained significantly more injuries than the females (25.3/1,000 A-E). The lower extremities were the most commonly injured body region in the men (32.0 /1,000 A-E), followed by the head and neck (18.3/1,000 A-E). Injuries to the spine (neck, upper back, low back and coccyx) were the third most often injured body region in males (13.8/1,000 A-E). All injuries to the women were sustained to the lower extremities. The most common type of injury in women was the contusion (15.2/1,000 A-E). However, men's most common type of injury was the sprain (22.8/1,000 A-E) followed by joint dysfunction (13.7/1,000 A-E). Concussions were only reported in males (6.9/1,000 A-E). Compared to international counterparts, the Canadian men and women recorded lower total injury rates. However, the males incurred more cerebral concussions than their American colleagues (4.7/1,000 A-E). CONCLUSIONS: Similar to what was found in previous studies, the current investigation seems to suggest that areas of particular concern for preventive measures involve the head and neck as well as the lower extremities. This is the first paper to identify spinal joint dysfunction.