Sugar-sugar interactions in oil suspensions containing surfactants and effects on macroscopic phenomena.

Surfactants are used in confectionery production to control the viscosity and yield value of molten chocolate. To develop a deeper understanding of the structure-function relationship of surfactants in food-related particle suspensions, the apparent viscosity, yield value, sedimentation, and particle interactions of 10 wt% confectioner's sugar-in-canola oil suspensions were investigated in the presence of up to 1 wt% commercial soy lecithin, polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), citric acid esters of monoacylglycerols (CITREM) or ammonium phosphatides (AMP). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to measure attractive forces at the nano-Newton scale between a sugar substrate and a sugar crystal-functionalized AFM cantilever in an oil environment. For all but PGPR, addition of surfactant reduced the adhesion force between sugar surfaces up to a critical concentration above which the force increased, implying the presence of additional interactions. This critical concentration was assumed to be when monolayer coverage of the sugar surfaces by surfactant occurred (0.05 wt% for lecithin, 0.10 wt% for CITREM and AMP). No critical concentration was found for PGPR, with its greatest effect for each analysis occurring at the highest concentrations tested (0.60 and 1.00 wt%). The significance of these interactions on macroscopic phenomena such as apparent viscosity and sedimentation was also assessed. Like with the AFM data, there was an optimal concentration of added surfactant above which viscosity increased. Sedimentation rate greatly decreased with addition of PGPR while being only slightly affected by addition of lecithin, CITREM and AMP. An argument regarding their efficacy was made based on the relative sizes of the polar headgroup and nonpolar tail groups of the molecules, which contributed to how they adsorbed to the sugar surface. Overall, these results suggested that surfactant properties such as molecular weight and head group properties played an important role in modifying the interactions between sugar crystals in an oil-continuous environment.

Effect of White Potatoes on Subjective Appetite, Food Intake, and Glycemic Response in Healthy Older Adults.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of white potato cooking methods on subjective appetite, short-term food intake (FI), and glycemic response in healthy older adults. Using a within-subject, repeated-measures design, 20 participants (age: 70.4 ± 0.6 y) completed, in random order, five treatment conditions: three potato treatments (baked potatoes, mashed potatoes, and French fries), an isocaloric control treatment (white bread), or a fasting condition (meal skipping). Subjective appetite and glycemic response were measured for 120 min using visual analogue scales and capillary blood samples, respectively. Lunch FI was measured with an ad libitum pizza meal at 120 min. Change from baseline subjective appetite (p < 0.001) and lunch FI (p < 0.001) were lower after all test treatments compared with meal skipping (p < 0.001), but did not differ among test treatments. Cumulative FI (test treatment + lunch FI) did not differ among treatment conditions. Blood glucose concentrations were higher after all test treatments compared with meal skipping (p < 0.001), but were not different from each other. In healthy older adults, white potatoes suppressed subjective appetite and lunch FI compared with meal skipping, suggesting white potatoes do not bypass regulatory control mechanisms of FI.

Morphology and Structure of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Loaded with High Concentrations of ß-Carotene.

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) containing up to 37.5 wt % all-trans ß-carotene in the lipid phase are potential water-dispersible food colorants. SLNs have been made by hot-melt high-pressure homogenization with fully hydrogenated sunflower oil and with polysorbate 80 and sunflower lecithin as stabilizers. Atomic force microscopy revealed the SLNs had thin platelet structures most likely derived from the triglyceride crystal ß-form, as detected by X-ray diffraction. No indications of crystalline ß-carotene were detected. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis showed the extensive isomerization of ß-carotene into more than 10 cis isomers, suggesting that it is present as an amorphous mixture. The high ß-carotene loadings did not affect the triglyceride crystal structure and the morphology of the SLNs. It is suggested the SLNs consist of a platelet core of crystalline triglyceride surrounded by an amorphous ß-carotene-containing layer. The layered structure is suggested to affect the coloring power of the SLNs at ß-carotene loadings above 15 wt % of the lipid phase.

Oleogelation of emulsified oil delays in vitro intestinal lipid digestion.

Oleogelation is shown to delay the in vitro digestion of soybean oil (SBO) dispersed within an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. Rice bran wax (RBX) was used as an oleogelator at concentrations of 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 4 wt% of the emulsions. All emulsions, which contained 1 wt% whey protein and 20 wt% oil and were prepared via hot homogenization, were kinetically stable against phase separation during the experimental timeframe (4 weeks), except at 4 wt% RBX where wax crystals 3-5 µm in length appeared within the dispersed oil phase, and which resulted in some emulsion instability. Rheological and thermal analysis of the emulsions and their corresponding SBO-RBX blends showed that the RBX led to formation of rigid oil droplets. Both in vitro gastric and intestinal digestion resulted in extensive oil droplet coalescence in all emulsions. Free fatty acid (FFA) release profiles showed that dispersed phase oleogelation delayed intestinal lipid digestion, with this effect enhanced up to 1 wt% RBX. A further increase to 4 wt% increased the rate of lipid digestion, which was ascribed to emulsion instability resulting from growth of intra-droplet RBX crystals.

Regression modelling of the impact of confectioner's sugar and temperature on palm oil crystallization and rheology.

The relationship between microscopic and macroscopic properties in fat-continuous dispersions is multifaceted compared to bulk oils, which limits the ability to extrapolate results from bulk systems towards complex formulations. The impact of confectioner's sugar on the crystallization and rheology of palm oil (PO) and mid-fraction blend (PMF) was investigated in this study. Adding sugar significantly increased storage modulus (G') and firmness (F) of the oils while exhibiting increased sensitivity towards processing conditions. Multiple regression analysis was used to create predictive models that correct for the effects caused by confectioner's sugar, such as altered fat crystal morphology and increased network rigidity, through the binary variable ζ. With limited studies on the use of PO in confectionery applications, these models may be used by industry as tools for production that do not rely on anecdote and overcome any shortcomings associated with the extrapolation from bulk systems.

Structure and rheology of oleogels made from rice bran wax and rice bran oil.

Structural and rheological properties of oleogels consisting of 0.5-25 wt% rice bran wax (RBX) in rice bran oil (RBO) were explored. RBX was an efficient, thermoreversible oleogelator capable of structuring RBO at concentrations as low as 0.5 wt% RBX. A qualitative temperature-composition phase diagram showed that oleogels containing higher concentrations of RBX were expectedly the most resistant to melting. In oleogels at higher RBX concentrations, polarized light microscopy revealed the presence of a network of interlinked, long aspect ratio wax crystal needles up to 50 µm long. Upon heating, RBX crystals did not undergo any structural transition, based on the constant short spacings at ~ 4.16 and ~ 3.73 Å, indicative of an orthorhombic subcell, and d001 long spacing at 74-76 Šthat persisted until RBX fusion. This long spacing was ascribed to the presence of wax esters consisting of long-chain saturated fatty acids (C24 and C22) esterified to C28 - C34 saturated fatty alcohols. During cooling from 90 to 20 °C, the increase in oleogel viscosity resulting from the RBX liquid-solid phase transition was corroborated by DSC-based crystallization onset and enthalpy data. Similarly, elastic moduli and hardness both rose with increasing RBX concentration. This study, which demonstrated that RBX can structure RBO with distinct concentration-dependent properties, serves as the foundation for the development of oleogel-based approaches to saturated and trans fats replacement in processed foods.

Effect of Emulsifier Concentration and Physical State on the In Vitro Digestion Behavior of Oil-in-Water Emulsions.

The influence of emulsifier physical state and concentration on the in vitro digestion of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions was investigated. Two citrated monoacylglycerols, glyceryl stearate citrate (GSC, bulk mp of 55-65 °C) and glyceryl oleate citrate (GOC, bulk mp of 0-10 °C), were used at 0.5 or 5 wt % of the emulsions to generate 20 wt % soybean oil O/W emulsions. Oil droplet lipolysis was slower in emulsions with 0.5 wt % emulsifier versus in those with 5 wt % emulsifier, resulting from the reduced surface-to-volume ratio in emulsions at 0.5 wt % emulsifier and the increased concentration of hydrolyzable groups at 5 wt % emulsifier. When excluding gastric digestion, all emulsions were similarly digested, confirming that emulsion intestinal digestion was highly dependent on gastric preprocessing. Finally, at a given emulsifier concentration, GSC-based emulsions with an interfacial crystalline shell experienced a decreased rate of intestinal lipid digestion compared with their GOC-based counterparts, confirming that emulsifier physical state played a role in lipid digestion.

The role of nonfat ingredients on confectionery fat crystallization.

Confections such as chocolate and biscuit fillings are composed of a continuous fat phase that contains dispersed nonfat ingredients such as sugar and cocoa powder. Research on fat crystallization and rheology in confections often extrapolates crystallization and textural properties from bulk to mixed systems while overlooking the important role of composition or particle interactions. For example, in chocolate processing the fat phase aids dispersed phase lubrication and fluidity whereas the dispersed particles assist in fat crystallization by providing many nucleation sites. In confections with a high dispersed phase volume fraction, fat crystallization may be hindered due to reduced triacyglycerol mobility, confinement, and increased tortuosity. This is further complicated in systems with slow crystallizing fats such as palm oil whose crystallization is exceptionally sensitive to composition and processing. This review breaks down the physical chemistry of fat-based confections and discusses the impact of different nonfat ingredients towards fat crystallization and rheology. The behavior of palm oil is further highlighted as it is becoming increasingly popular as a confectionery ingredient. Lastly, ingredient-ingredient interactions and their role in fat crystallization are described along with force spectroscopy as a novel tool to characterize such phenomena. Force spectroscopy utilizes atomic force microscopy to measure intermolecular forces as a function of distance but remains largely unexplored in the area of food science.

The Physical State of Emulsified Edible Oil Modulates Its in Vitro Digestion.

Emulsified lipid digestion was tailored by manipulating the physical state of dispersed oil droplets in whey protein stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, where the oil phase consisted of one of five ratios of soybean oil (SO) and fully hydrogenated soybean oil (FHSO). The evolution in particle size distribution, structural changes during oral, gastric, and intestinal digestion, and free fatty acid release during intestinal digestion were all investigated. Irrespective of the physical state and structure of the dispersed oil/fat, all emulsions were stable against droplet size increases during oral digestion. During gastric digestion, the 50:50 SO:FHSO emulsion was more stable against physical breakdown than any other emulsion. All emulsions underwent flocculation and coalescence or partial coalescence upon intestinal digestion, with the SO emulsion being hydrolyzed the most rapidly. The melting point of all emulsions containing FHSO was above 37 °C, with the presence of solid fat within the dispersed oil droplets greatly limiting lipolysis. Fat crystal polymorph and nanoplatelet size did not play an important role in the rate and extent of lipid digestion. Free fatty acid release modeled by the Weibull distribution function showed that the rate of lipid digestion (κ) decreased with increasing solid fat content, and followed an exponential relationship (R2 = 0.95). Overall, lipid digestion was heavily altered by the physical state of the dispersed oil phase within O/W emulsions.

Dispersed droplets as active fillers in fat-crystal network-stabilized water-in-oil emulsions.

We show that the rigidity and microstructure of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions depend on the ability of oil-soluble emulsifiers to enhance the crystallization of fats on the surface of dispersed aqueous droplets. In test emulsions consisting of hydrogenated soy oil (HSO) in liquid canola oil (CO) and a dispersed aqueous phase representing up to 20wt% of the emulsion, use of glycerol monooleate (GMO) promoted oil-water interfacial crystallization whereas polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) resulted in HSO crystallization in the continuous phase only. By removing the confounding effects of droplet size and solid fat content, GMO-covered emulsion droplets were shown to behave as active fillers as they interacted with the surrounding fat crystal matrix and increased emulsion rigidity. By contrast, the PGPR-stabilized droplets only weakly associated with the matrix and did not significantly alter emulsion rheology, hence these were inactive fillers. This study shows that by simply changing emulsifier type, it is possible to alter the magnitude of the association between the dispersed droplets and surrounding fat crystals and, by extension, tailor the texture and rigidity of fat crystal-stabilized water-in-oil emulsions.

Bioavailability and Safety of Vitamin D3 from Pizza Baked with Fortified Mozzarella Cheese: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

PURPOSE: To assess the bioavailability and safety of vitamin D3 from fortified mozzarella cheese baked on pizza. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind trial, 96 apparently healthy, ethnically diverse adults were randomized to consume 200 IU or 28 000 IU vitamin D3 fortified mozzarella cheese with pizza once weekly for a total of 8 weeks. Blood and urine samples were collected at baseline (week 1) and final (week 10) visits for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and other biochemical measures. The primary outcome compared serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D between groups at 10 weeks. The secondary outcome evaluated the safety of vitamin D dosing protocol as measured by serum and urine calcium, phosphate, creatinine, and serum parathyroid hormone (PTH). RESULTS: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D increased by 5.1 ± 11 nmol/L in the low-dose group (n = 47; P = 0.003), and by 73 ± 22 nmol/L in the high-dose group (n = 49; P < 0.0001). None of the subjects in either group developed any adverse events during the supplementation protocol. Serum PTH significantly decreased in the high-dose group only (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin D3 is safe and bioavailable from fortified mozzarella cheese baked on pizza.

Oil diffusivity through fat crystal networks.

Oil migration in chocolate and chocolate-based confections leads to undesirable visual and textural changes. Establishing ways to slow this unavoidable process would increase shelf life and reduce consumer rejection. Diffusion is most often credited as the main pathway by which oil migration occurs. Here, we use fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) to explore the diffusion coefficients of vegetable and mineral oil through fat crystal networks at different solid fat contents (SFC). Differences in compatibility between the fat and oil lead to unique primary crystal clusters, yet those variations do not affect diffusion at low SFCs. Trends deviate at higher SFCs, which we ascribe to the influence of the differing crystal cluster structures. We relate our results to the strong and weak-link rheological regimes of fat crystal networks. Finally, we connect the results to relationships developed for polymer gel systems.

Surface-active solid lipid nanoparticles as Pickering stabilizers for oil-in-water emulsions.

Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions solely stabilized by surface-active solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were developed. The SLNs were generated by quench-cooling hot O/W nanoemulsions consisting of 7.5% glyceryl stearyl citrate (GSC) dispersed in water. Their initial volume-weighted mean particle diameter (∼152 nm) and zeta potential (ca.-49 mV) remained unchanged for 24 weeks. O/W emulsions (oil phase volume fraction: 0.2) containing 7.5% (w/w) GSC SLNs in the aqueous phase were kinetically-stable for 12 weeks and did not visually phase-separate over 24 weeks. The O/W emulsions generated with solid-state GSC SLNs had a volume-weighted mean oil droplet diameter of ∼459 nm and a zeta potential of ca.-43 mV. Emulsion microstructure evaluated with TEM revealed dispersed oil droplets sparsely covered with adsorbed Pickering-type SLNs as well aggregated SLNs present in the continuous phase. Gradual emulsion destabilization resulted from GSC SLN dissolution during the experimental timeframe. Overall, surface-active SLNs developed via nanoemulsions effectively kinetically stabilized O/W emulsions.

Gelatin-based emulsion gels for diffusion-controlled release applications.

Emulsion gels are now emerging as a new class of biomaterials for controlled-release applications. Novel food-grade emulsion gels consisting of indomethacin-loaded vegetable oil droplets dispersed within genipin-cross-linked gelatin-based hydrogels were characterized for their physical and drug-release properties. Varying the weight ratio of the aqueous and oil phases between 5:1 and 5:5 was used to modulate construct swelling and drug release. The dispersed oil droplets generally became larger, more polydispersed and aggregated with an increase in oil fraction. Cross-linking with genipin increased the puncture strength of the gels vs. their uncross-linked counterparts and was necessary to prevent breakdown. Swelling of the emulsion gels demonstrated Fickian behaviour at all gelatin: oil ratios. Indomethacin release followed Fickian diffusion at higher oil fractions only, demonstrating coupled Fickian and super-Case-II transport at lower oil ratios (5:1, 5:2 and 5:3). Overall, the introduction of a dispersed oil phase within a hydrogel was exploited for the release of hydrophobic bioactive compounds, with tailoring of composition used to significantly alter release kinetics.

Comparison of Pickering and network stabilization in water-in-oil emulsions.

We compared the efficacy of Pickering crystals, a continuous phase crystal network, and a combination thereof against sedimentation and dispersed phase coalescence in water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. Using 20 wt % water-in-canola oil emulsions as our model, glycerol monostearate (GMS) permitted Pickering-type stabilization, whereas simultaneous usage of hydrogenated canola oil (HCO) and glycerol monooleate (GMO) primarily led to network-stabilized emulsions. A minimum of 4 wt % GMS or 10 wt % HCO was required for long-term sedimentation stability. Although there were no significant differences between the two in mean droplet size with time, the free water content of the network-stabilized emulsions was higher than Pickering-stabilized emulsions, suggesting higher instability. Microscopy revealed the presence of crystal shells around the dispersed phase in the GMS-stabilized emulsions, whereas in the HCO-stabilized emulsion, spherulitic growth in the continuous phase and on the droplet surface occurred. The displacement energy (E(disp)) to detach crystals from the oil-water interface was ∼10(4) kT, and was highest for GMS crystals. Thermal cycling to induce dispersed phase coalescence of the emulsions resulted in desorption of both GMS and GMO from the interface, which we ascribed to solute-solvent hydrogen bonding between the emulsifier molecules and the solvent oil, based on IR spectra. Overall, Pickering crystals were more effective than network crystals for emulsion stabilization. However, the thermal stability of all emulsions was hampered by the diffusion of the molten emulsifiers from the interface.

The ratio of serum 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) to 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) is predictive of 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) response to vitamin D(3) supplementation.

24,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (24,25VD) is a major catabolite of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25VD) metabolism, and may be physiologically active. Our objectives were to: (1) characterize the response of serum 24,25VD(3) to vitamin D(3) (VD(3)) supplementation; (2) test the hypothesis that a higher 24,25VD(3) to 25VD(3) ratio (24,25:25VD(3)) predicts 25VD(3) response. Serum samples (n=160) from wk 2 and wk 6 of a placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial of VD(3) (28,000IU/wk) were analyzed for serum 24,25VD(3) and 25VD(3) by mass spectrometry. Serum 24,25VD(3) was highly correlated with 25VD(3) in placebo- and VD(3)-treated subjects at each time point (p<0.0001). At wk 2, the 24,25:25VD(3) ratio was lower with VD(3) than with placebo (p=0.035). From wk 2 to wk 6, the 24,25:25VD(3) ratio increased with the VD(3) supplement (p<0.001) but not with placebo, such that at wk 6 this ratio did not significantly differ between groups. After correcting for potential confounders, we found that 24,25:25VD(3) at wk 2 was inversely correlated to the 25VD(3) increment by wk 6 in the supplemented group (r=-0.32, p=0.02) but not the controls. There is a strong correlation between 24,25VD(3) and 25VD(3) that is only modestly affected by VD(3) supplementation. This indicates that the catabolism of 25VD(3) to 24,25VD(3) rises with increasing 25VD(3). Furthermore, the initial ratio of serum 24,25VD(3) to 25VD(3) predicted the increase in 25VD(3). The 24,25:25VD(3) ratio may therefore have clinical utility as a marker for VD(3) catabolism and a predictor of serum 25VD(3) response to VD(3) supplementation.

Effect of flaxseed gum on reduction of blood glucose and cholesterol in type 2 diabetic patients.

The effects of ingestion of flaxseed gum on blood glucose and cholesterol, particularly low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, in type 2 diabetes were evaluated. Flaxseed gum was incorporated in wheat flour chapattis. Sixty patients of type 2 diabetes were fed a daily diet for 3 months, along with six wheat flour chapattis containing flaxseed gum (5 g), as per the recommendations of the American Diabetic Association. The control group (60 individuals) consumed an identical diet but the chapattis were without gum. The blood biochemistry profiles monitored before starting the study and at monthly intervals showed fasting blood sugar in the experimental group decreased from 154 ± 8 mg/dl to 136 ± 7 mg/dl (P=0.03) while the total cholesterol reduced from 182 ± 11 mg/dl to 163 ± 9 mg/dl (P=0.03). Results showed a decrease in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol from 110 ± 8 mg/dl to 92 ± 9 mg/dl (P=0.02). The study demonstrated the efficacy of flax gum in the blood biochemistry profiles of type 2 diabetes.

Vitamin D3 fortification, quantification, and long-term stability in Cheddar and low-fat cheeses.

Considering the widespread insufficiency of vitamin D, the fortification of additional foods with vitamin D is warranted. The objective of this research was to assess the feasibility of vitamin D3 fortification in natural hard cheeses. We examined the recovery, distribution, long-term retention, and heat stability of the vitamin in industrially made fortified Cheddar and low-fat cheeses. The results indicated that the vitamin D3 did not degrade during processing, over 1 year of ripening (3-8 degrees C), or after thermal treatment at 232 degrees C for 5 min. Vitamin D3 recovery in the fortified Cheddar and low-fat cheeses were, respectively, 91 and 55% of the vitamin D3 added to the milk used to make each cheese. The remaining vitamin D3 was entrained in the whey. The vitamin D3 was uniformly distributed throughout the blocks of cheese. The fortification process did not alter the yield, chemical composition, or flavor of the Cheddar cheese. We conclude that industrially manufactured Cheddar and low-fat cheeses are suitable for vitamin D3 fortification.

The bioavailability of vitamin D from fortified cheeses and supplements is equivalent in adults.

There is a need to increase the options for vitamin D fortification. We have developed a method to fortify hard cheese with vitamin D. Our aim was to characterize the bioavailability of vitamin D from fortified cheeses. Eighty adults were randomized to weekly servings of fortified cheddar cheese (DC) (34 g; n = 20); fortified low-fat cheese (DLF) (41 g; n = 10); liquid vitamin D supplement (1 mL), taken with food (DS+) (n = 20) or without food (DS-) (n = 10); placebo cheddar cheese (n = 10); or placebo supplement (n = 10). The treatments contained 28,000 IU cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), equivalent to 4000 IU (100 microg/d). The primary outcome was the comparison of vitamin D bioavailability, as measured by the serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] response, between fortified cheeses and supplement. In the placebo groups, initial 25(OH)D, 55.0 +/- 25.3 nmol/L, declined over the 8-wk winter protocol, to 50.7 +/- 24.2 nmol/L (P = 0.046). In the vitamin D-treated groups, the mean increases in 25(OH)D over 8 wk were: 65.3 +/- 24.1 (DC), 69.4 +/- 21.7 (DLF), 59.3 +/- 23.3 (DS+), and 59.3 +/- 19.6 nmol/L (DS-); these changes differed from the placebo groups (P < 0.0001) but not from one another (P = 0.62). Compared with baseline, serum parathyroid hormone decreased with both fortification (P = 0.003) and supplementation (P = 0.012). These data demonstrate that vitamin D is equally bioavailable from fortified hard cheeses and supplements, making cheese suitable for vitamin D fortification.

Interactions of vitamin D3 with bovine beta-lactoglobulin A and beta-casein.

It is of nutritional significance to fortify processed dairy products (e.g., cheese, yogurt, and ice cream) with vitamin D3; however, the inherent complexity of these foods may influence the stability and bioavailability of this nutrient. In the present study, the interactions of vitamin D3 with beta-lactoglobulin A and beta-casein were investigated under various environmental conditions (i.e., pH and ionic strength) using fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopic techniques. The results indicated that vitamin D3 was bound to both beta-lactoglobulin A and beta-casein depending on the solution conditions. The apparent dissociation constants ranged from 0.02 to 0.29 microM for beta-lactoglobulin A, whereas the beta-casein apparent dissociation constants ranged from 0.06 to 0.26 microM. The apparent mole ratios were also comparable, i.e., 0.51-2.04 and 1.16-2.05 mol of vitamin D3 were bound per mole of beta-lactoglobulin A and beta-casein, respectively. It was concluded that these interactions may strongly influence vitamin D3 stability and, hence, bioavailability in processed dairy products.