RESUMO
INTRODUCTION: Approved biosimilars exhibit comparable efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity to reference products. This report provides perspectives on the societal value of biosimilars within Europe and potential factors that have influenced market dynamics. METHODS: An independent, self-administered survey or one-on-one in-depth interview was used to collect viewpoints about the impact of biosimilar medicines within European markets. Key insights were also sought from an expert panel of European stakeholders. RESULTS: Survey respondents were clinicians, pharmacists, and payers from Europe (N = 103). Perceived benefits of biosimilars included increased access to innovative medicines (73% of respondents) or biologic treatments (66%). Biosimilar competition was thought to expand access to biologics (~50% of respondents) or drug combinations (~36%) and reduce biologic access time (34%). Key drivers of biologic access after biosimilar competition included increased biologic awareness (51%) and changes to prescribing guidelines (37%) and/or treatment paradigms (28%). The expert panel developed a market maturity framework of biosimilar adoption/opportunities comprising three stages: 'Invest,' 'Expand,' and 'Harvest.' Findings were supported by published literature. CONCLUSIONS: In Europe, the perceptions of well-informed survey/interview respondents are that biosimilars have improved patient outcomes via increased access to biologics and innovative biologic products, contributing to earlier and longer treatment of a broader population.
Assuntos
Medicamentos Biossimilares , Humanos , Europa (Continente) , Farmacêuticos , Inquéritos e QuestionáriosRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: Biosimilars have improved access to biologic medicines; however, historical thinking may jeopardize the viability of future markets. AREAS COVERED: An expert panel of eight diverse European stakeholders provided insights about rethinking biosimilars and cost-savings, reducing patient access inequalities, increasing inter-market equity, and improving education. The insights reported here (Part 2) follow a study that provides perspectives on leveraging the holistic benefits of biosimilars for market sustainability based on independent survey results and telephone interviews of stakeholders from diverse biosimilar markets (Part 1). Directional recommendations are provided for payers. EXPERT OPINION: The panel's market maturity framework for biosimilars has three stages: 'Invest,' 'Expand' and 'Harvest.' Across market stages, re-thinking the benefits of biosimilars beyond cost-savings, considering earlier or expanded access/new indications, product innovations, and re-investment of biosimilar-generated cost-savings should be communicated to stakeholders to promote further engagement. During 'Expand' and 'Harvest' stages, development of efficient, forward-looking procurement systems and mechanisms that drive uptake and stabilize competition between manufacturers are key. Future biosimilars will target various therapy areas beyond those targeted by existing biosimilars. To ensure a healthy, accessible future market, stakeholders must align their objectives, communicate, collaborate, and coordinate via education, incentivization, and procurement, to maximize the totality of benefits.
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Medicamentos Biossimilares , Humanos , Aprovação de Drogas , Europa (Continente) , Redução de Custos , Inquéritos e QuestionáriosRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: To update the 2012 EULAR/ERA-EDTA recommendations for the management of lupus nephritis (LN). METHODS: Following the EULAR standardised operating procedures, a systematic literature review was performed. Members of a multidisciplinary Task Force voted independently on their level of agreeement with the formed statements. RESULTS: The changes include recommendations for treatment targets, use of glucocorticoids and calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) and management of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). The target of therapy is complete response (proteinuria <0.5-0.7 g/24 hours with (near-)normal glomerular filtration rate) by 12 months, but this can be extended in patients with baseline nephrotic-range proteinuria. Hydroxychloroquine is recommended with regular ophthalmological monitoring. In active proliferative LN, initial (induction) treatment with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF 2-3 g/day or mycophenolic acid (MPA) at equivalent dose) or low-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide (CY; 500 mg × 6 biweekly doses), both combined with glucocorticoids (pulses of intravenous methylprednisolone, then oral prednisone 0.3-0.5 mg/kg/day) is recommended. MMF/CNI (especially tacrolimus) combination and high-dose CY are alternatives, for patients with nephrotic-range proteinuria and adverse prognostic factors. Subsequent long-term maintenance treatment with MMF or azathioprine should follow, with no or low-dose (<7.5 mg/day) glucocorticoids. The choice of agent depends on the initial regimen and plans for pregnancy. In non-responding disease, switch of induction regimens or rituximab are recommended. In pure membranous LN with nephrotic-range proteinuria or proteinuria >1 g/24 hours despite renin-angiotensin-aldosterone blockade, MMF in combination with glucocorticoids is preferred. Assessment for kidney and extra-renal disease activity, and management of comorbidities is lifelong with repeat kidney biopsy in cases of incomplete response or nephritic flares. In ESKD, transplantation is the preferred kidney replacement option with immunosuppression guided by transplant protocols and/or extra-renal manifestations. Treatment of LN in children follows the same principles as adult disease. CONCLUSIONS: We have updated the EULAR recommendations for the management of LN to facilitate homogenization of patient care.
Assuntos
Imunossupressores/uso terapêutico , Nefrite Lúpica/tratamento farmacológico , Sociedades Médicas , Antirreumáticos/uso terapêutico , Azatioprina/uso terapêutico , Inibidores de Calcineurina/uso terapêutico , Quimioterapia Combinada , Europa (Continente) , Taxa de Filtração Glomerular , Glucocorticoides/uso terapêutico , Humanos , Hidroxicloroquina/uso terapêutico , Falência Renal Crônica/etiologia , Falência Renal Crônica/terapia , Nefrite Lúpica/complicações , Nefrite Lúpica/patologia , Nefrite Lúpica/fisiopatologia , Ácido Micofenólico/uso terapêutico , Proteinúria/etiologia , Proteinúria/terapiaRESUMO
Multinucleated giant cells (MGCs) are implicated in many diseases including schistosomiasis, sarcoidosis and arthritis. MGC generation is energy intensive to enforce membrane fusion and cytoplasmic expansion. Using receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL) induced osteoclastogenesis to model MGC formation, here we report RANKL cellular programming requires extracellular arginine. Systemic arginine restriction improves outcome in multiple murine arthritis models and its removal induces preosteoclast metabolic quiescence, associated with impaired tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle function and metabolite induction. Effects of arginine deprivation on osteoclastogenesis are independent of mTORC1 activity or global transcriptional and translational inhibition. Arginine scarcity also dampens generation of IL-4 induced MGCs. Strikingly, in extracellular arginine absence, both cell types display flexibility as their formation can be restored with select arginine precursors. These data establish how environmental amino acids control the metabolic fate of polykaryons and suggest metabolic ways to manipulate MGC-associated pathologies and bone remodelling.
Assuntos
Arginina/metabolismo , Células Gigantes/imunologia , Animais , Artrite/genética , Artrite/metabolismo , Artrite/fisiopatologia , Remodelação Óssea , Ciclo do Ácido Cítrico , Feminino , Células Gigantes/citologia , Humanos , Interleucina-4/metabolismo , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina/genética , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Osteoclastos/citologia , Osteoclastos/metabolismo , Osteogênese , Ligante RANK/genética , Ligante RANK/metabolismoRESUMO
Synovial fibroblasts are key cells orchestrating the inflammatory response in arthritis. Here we demonstrate that loss of miR-146a, a key epigenetic regulator of the innate immune response, leads to increased joint destruction in a TNF-driven model of arthritis by specifically regulating the behavior of synovial fibroblasts. Absence of miR-146a in synovial fibroblasts display a highly deregulated gene expression pattern and enhanced proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Deficiency of miR-146a induces deregulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor associated factor 6 (TRAF6) in synovial fibroblasts, leading to increased proliferation. In addition, loss of miR-146a shifts the metabolic state of fibroblasts towards glycolysis and augments the ability of synovial fibroblasts to support the generation of osteoclasts by controlling the balance of osteoclastogenic regulatory factors receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG). Bone marrow transplantation experiments confirmed the importance of miR-146a in the radioresistant mesenchymal compartment for the control of arthritis severity, in particular for inflammatory joint destruction. This study therefore identifies microRNA-146a as an important local epigenetic regulator of the inflammatory response in arthritis. It is a central element of an anti-inflammatory feedback loop in resident synovial fibroblasts, who are orchestrating the inflammatory response in chronic arthritis. MiR-146a restricts their activation, thereby preventing excessive tissue damage during arthritis.
Assuntos
Artrite/genética , Artrite/metabolismo , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Articulações/metabolismo , Articulações/patologia , MicroRNAs/genética , Animais , Artrite/patologia , Artrite Experimental , Reabsorção Óssea/genética , Proliferação de Células , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Fibroblastos/patologia , Expressão Gênica , Regulação da Expressão Gênica , Humanos , Camundongos , Camundongos Transgênicos , Interferência de RNA , Membrana Sinovial/citologia , Membrana Sinovial/metabolismo , Fator 6 Associado a Receptor de TNF/genética , Fator 6 Associado a Receptor de TNF/metabolismo , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/genética , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/metabolismoRESUMO
Circadian rhythms are of crucial importance for cellular and physiological functions of the brain and body. Chronobiology has a prominent role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), with major symptoms such as joint pain and stiffness being most pronounced in the morning, possibly mediated by circadian rhythms of cytokine and hormone levels. Chronobiological principles imply that tailoring the timing of treatments to the circadian rhythm of individual patients (chronotherapy) could optimize results. Trials of NSAID or methotrexate chronotherapy for patients with RA suggest such an approach can improve outcomes and reduce adverse effects. The most compelling evidence for RA chronotherapy, however, is that coordinating the timing of glucocorticoid therapy to coincide with the nocturnal increase in blood IL-6 levels results in reduced morning stiffness and pain compared with the same glucocorticoid dose taken in the morning. Aside from optimizing relief of the core symptoms of RA, chronotherapy might also relieve important comorbid conditions such as depression and sleep disturbances. Surprisingly, chronobiology is not mentioned in official guidelines for conducting RA drug registration trials. Given the imperative to achieve the best value with approved drugs and health budgets, the time is ripe to translate the 'circadian concept' in rheumatology from bench to bedside.
Assuntos
Anti-Inflamatórios não Esteroides/administração & dosagem , Artrite Reumatoide/tratamento farmacológico , Artrite Reumatoide/fisiopatologia , Ritmo Circadiano/fisiologia , Cronofarmacoterapia , Animais , Depressão/terapia , Humanos , Resultado do TratamentoRESUMO
The destruction of articular structures in the course of inflammatory arthritides such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or seronegative spondyloarthropathies is the most serious direct consequence of these diseases. Indeed, joint damage constitutes the "organ damage" of RA and-just like in all other diseases with organ involvement-such damage will usually be irreversible, cause permanent loss of function and subsequent disability. Research has identified a number of mechanisms and mediators of damage to articular structures such as bone and cartilage, ranging from proinflammatory cytokines, signal transduction pathways and cells types, which will be discussed in this review.
Assuntos
Artrite/etiologia , Artrite/patologia , Animais , Artrite/metabolismo , Citocinas/metabolismo , Humanos , Mediadores da Inflamação/metabolismo , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
Despite their different targets, biologic agents used for blockade of TNF and IL-6, inhibition of T-cell co-stimulation and B-cell depletion all have similar beneficial effects on the outcome of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This observation raises questions as to whether the targets of these therapies might all be involved in a common pathogenetic pathway. However, blockade of TNF and IL-6 has a similar inhibitory effect on joint damage progression in patients with either early or late disease. In comparison, B-cell depletion and inhibition of T-cell co-stimulation seem to have a somewhat delayed effect on joint damage (compared with cytokine inhibition), which suggests that these approaches affect upstream pathogenetic events. This article discusses these disparities and presents hypotheses as to whether clinical trial data can be used to determine at which point a biologic agent might interfere with the pathogenetic cascade in RA.
Assuntos
Artrite Reumatoide , Terapia Biológica/métodos , Imunossupressores/uso terapêutico , Linfócitos T/imunologia , Animais , Artrite Reumatoide/tratamento farmacológico , Artrite Reumatoide/etiologia , Artrite Reumatoide/imunologia , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Humanos , Interleucina-6/antagonistas & inibidores , Interleucina-6/imunologia , Resultado do Tratamento , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/antagonistas & inibidores , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/imunologiaRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: To assess whether disease activity levels at treatment initiation or during the first 3 months of therapy predict disease activity at 1 year after treatment initiation. METHODS: Pooled patient data from early rheumatoid arthritis (RA) clinical trials (n = 1,342) of methotrexate (MTX), tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitor monotherapy (adalimumab and etanercept), and the combination of the two (adalimumab or infliximab plus MTX) were used for the primary analyses. Pooled data from clinical trials of MTX and of TNF inhibitor plus MTX in late RA (n = 712) were used for validation of the results. Disease activity was primarily assessed using the Simplified Disease Activity Index (SDAI); in addition, we calculated the Disease Activity Score 28-joint assessment (DAS28) and the Clinical Disease Activity Index (CDAI). Associations of disease activity measures at baseline and at 1, 2, 3, and 6 months with disease activity values or disease activity states at 1 year were performed using Spearman's rank correlation, analysis of variance, and diagnostic testing procedures, including receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses, and probit analysis. RESULTS: Correlations with SDAI values at end point were significant (P < 0.0001) at baseline, and increased to r = approximately 0.6 at 3 months. The area under the ROC curve indicated a high diagnostic test yield with respect to the 1-year outcome (area under the ROC curve approximately 0.8). At all time points, including baseline, the group of patients who achieved remission at 1 year had lower average SDAI values than did those whose disease activity was high at 1 year. The groups achieving low or moderate disease activities at 1 year had SDAI values lying between. Baseline disease activity was less associated with disease activity at the end point for treatment with TNF inhibitor plus MTX, indicating its effectiveness over a broader range of baseline disease activity, but the association with end point disease activity was similar to that in the MTX treatment group at 1 month after treatment initiation. The data were similar when scores on the DAS28 and CDAI were used and were fully validated in the independent cohort of patients with late RA. CONCLUSION: The level of disease activity at baseline and especially during the first 3 months of treatment is significantly related to the level of disease activity at 1 year. Patients who reach a moderate or low disease activity status after 3-6 months of therapy may require switching to alternative therapies. Our findings indicate that intensive and dynamic treatment strategies that include a closer look at disease activity at 3 months in patients with early and late RA is warranted.
Assuntos
Antirreumáticos/uso terapêutico , Artrite Reumatoide/tratamento farmacológico , Artrite Reumatoide/fisiopatologia , Adalimumab , Adulto , Idoso , Anticorpos Monoclonais/uso terapêutico , Anticorpos Monoclonais Humanizados , Método Duplo-Cego , Quimioterapia Combinada , Feminino , Humanos , Infliximab , Masculino , Metotrexato/uso terapêutico , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Ensaios Clínicos Controlados Aleatórios como Assunto , Índice de Gravidade de Doença , Fatores de Tempo , Resultado do TratamentoRESUMO
There is increasing evidence for beneficial effects of early DMARD (disease-modifying antirheumatic drug) therapy over delayed treatment in patients who present with arthritis of recent onset. However, no universal consensus exists concerning the choice of initial drug or whether single drugs or combinations should be given as initial treatments. Recent studies have focused on the benefits of various strategies in which treatments were tailored to achieve low levels of disease activity, as assessed using validated response criteria. These studies demonstrated superiority of 'aggressive' over 'conventional' approaches. Whether the inclusion of tumour necrosis factor antagonists or other biologic targeted therapies in such strategies confers additional benefits in terms of improved long-term outcomes must be clarified by further studies. Assessment of risks in the individual patient, allowing individual 'tailoring' of the initial treatment, would be desirable.
Assuntos
Antirreumáticos/uso terapêutico , Artrite Reumatoide/tratamento farmacológico , Artrite Reumatoide/diagnóstico , Produtos Biológicos/uso terapêutico , Humanos , Estudos Retrospectivos , Resultado do TratamentoRESUMO
Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) is considered to be a major factor in chronic synovial inflammation and is an inducer of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling. In the present study we investigated the ability of TNF to activate MAPKs in the synovial membrane in vivo. We studied human TNF transgenic mice--an in vivo model of TNF-induced arthritis--to examine phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun amino terminal kinase (JNK) and p38MAPKalpha in the inflamed joints by means of immunoblot and immunohistochemistry. In addition, the effects of systemic blockade of TNF, IL-1 and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB (RANK) ligand on the activation of MAPKs were assessed. In vivo, overexpression of TNF induced activation of p38MAPKalpha and ERK in the synovial membrane, whereas activation of JNK was less pronounced and rarely observed on immunohistochemical analysis. Activated p38MAPKalpha was predominantly found in synovial macrophages, whereas ERK activation was present in both synovial macrophages and fibroblasts. T and B lymphocytes did not exhibit major activation of any of the three MAPKs. Systemic blockade of TNF reduced activation of p38MAPKalpha and ERK, whereas inhibition of IL-1 only affected p38MAPKalpha and blockade of RANK ligand did not result in any decrease in MAPK activation in the synovial membrane. These data indicate that TNF preferentially activates p38MAPKalpha and ERK in synovial membrane exposed to TNF. This not only suggests that targeted inhibition of p38MAPKalpha and ERK is a feasible strategy for blocking TNF-mediated effects on joints, but it also shows that even currently available methods to block TNF effectively reduce activation of these two MAPKs.
Assuntos
Artrite/metabolismo , MAP Quinases Reguladas por Sinal Extracelular/metabolismo , MAP Quinase Quinase 4/metabolismo , Sistema de Sinalização das MAP Quinases/fisiologia , Proteína Quinase 14 Ativada por Mitógeno/metabolismo , Membrana Sinovial/enzimologia , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/fisiologia , Animais , Anticorpos Monoclonais/uso terapêutico , Antirreumáticos/uso terapêutico , Artrite/tratamento farmacológico , Artrite/genética , Proteínas de Transporte/antagonistas & inibidores , Fibroblastos/enzimologia , Glicoproteínas/uso terapêutico , Humanos , Infliximab , Proteína Antagonista do Receptor de Interleucina 1 , Interleucina-1/antagonistas & inibidores , Macrófagos/enzimologia , Glicoproteínas de Membrana/antagonistas & inibidores , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Transgênicos , Osteoprotegerina , Ligante RANK , Receptor Ativador de Fator Nuclear kappa-B , Receptores Citoplasmáticos e Nucleares/uso terapêutico , Receptores do Fator de Necrose Tumoral/uso terapêutico , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/fisiologia , Sialoglicoproteínas/uso terapêutico , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/antagonistas & inibidores , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/genéticaRESUMO
Chronic inflammation is a major trigger of local and systemic bone loss. Disintegration of cell-matrix interaction is a prerequisite for the invasion of inflammatory tissue into bone. CD44 is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein that connects a variety of extracellular matrix proteins to the cell surface. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a major inducer of chronic inflammation and its overexpression leads to chronic inflammatory arthritis. By generating CD44(-/-) human TNF-transgenic (hTNFtg) mice, we show that destruction of joints and progressive crippling is far more severe in hTNFtg mice lacking CD44, which also develop severe generalized osteopenia. Mutant mice exhibit an increased bone resorption due to enhanced number, size, and resorptive capacity of osteoclasts, whereas bone formation and osteoblast differentiation are not affected. Responsiveness of CD44-deficient osteoclasts toward TNF is enhanced and associated with increased activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. These data identify CD44 as a critical inhibitor of TNF-driven joint destruction and inflammatory bone loss.
Assuntos
Matriz Extracelular/metabolismo , Receptores de Hialuronatos/metabolismo , Osteoclastos/metabolismo , Osteólise/metabolismo , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/metabolismo , Animais , Artrite/genética , Artrite/metabolismo , Artrite/patologia , Doenças Ósseas Metabólicas/genética , Doenças Ósseas Metabólicas/metabolismo , Doenças Ósseas Metabólicas/patologia , Matriz Extracelular/genética , Matriz Extracelular/patologia , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/genética , Humanos , Receptores de Hialuronatos/genética , Inflamação/genética , Inflamação/metabolismo , Inflamação/patologia , Sistema de Sinalização das MAP Quinases/genética , Sistema de Sinalização das MAP Quinases/fisiologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Osteoclastos/patologia , Osteogênese/genética , Osteogênese/fisiologia , Osteólise/genética , Osteólise/patologia , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/genética , Proteínas Quinases p38 Ativadas por Mitógeno/metabolismoRESUMO
Local bone erosion and systemic bone loss are hallmarks of rheumatoid arthritis and cause progressive disability. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a key mediator of arthritis and acts catabolically on bone by stimulating bone resorption and inhibiting bone formation. We hypothesized that the concerted action of anti-TNF, which reduces inflammation and parathyroid hormone (PTH), which stimulates bone formation, or osteoprotegerin (OPG), which blocks bone resorption and could lead to repair of local bone erosions and reversal of systemic bone loss. To test this, human TNF-transgenic mice with established erosive arthritis and systemic bone loss were treated with PTH, OPG, and anti-TNF, alone or in combination. Local bone erosions almost fully regressed, on combined treatment with anti-TNF and PTH and/or OPG, suggesting repair of inflammatory skeletal lesions. In contrast, OPG and anti-TNF alone led to arrest of bone erosions but did not achieve repair. Treatment with PTH alone had no influence on the progression of bone erosions. Local bone erosions all showed signs of new bone formation such as the presence of osteoblasts, osteoid formation, and mineralization. Furthermore, systemic bone loss was completely reversed on combined treatment and this effect was mediated by osteoblast stimulation and osteoclast blockade. In summary, we conclude that local joint destruction and systemic inflammatory bone loss because of TNF can regress and that repair requires a combined approach by reducing inflammation, blocking bone resorption, or stimulating bone formation.