Phosphorus bioavailability in increased-protein, reduced-fiber canola meal, conventional canola meal, and soybean meal fed to crossbred chicks.

Three experiments were conducted to evaluate 3 increased-protein, reduced-fiber canola meals (CM) (CMA, CMB, and Test CM), 2 conventional CM (CCM), and 2 soybean meals (SBM). For determination of P bioavailability in CM and SBM, a P-deficient cornstarch-dextrose-SBM basal diet was fed as Diet 1. The latter basal diet was then supplemented with 0.05 and 0.10% P from KH2PO4 or 12.5 and 25% of a CM or SBM. In addition, the effect of phytase enzyme on bioavailability of the P in CMA, Test CM, and one of the CCM was determined using P-deficient 45% CM-cornstarch-dextrose diets (0.11 to 0.15% non-phytate P), with a CM as the only source of dietary P. Additional diets contained 0.05 and 0.10% added P from KH2PO4 or 125 to 500 units phytase added per kg of diet. Crossbred chicks (New Hampshire X Columbian) were fed the experimental diets from 8 to 21 d post hatch in all experiments, and bioavailability of P was estimated using the slope ratio method in which tibia ash was regressed on supplemental P intake. A linear increase in tibia ash was observed as the P level increased by the addition of KH2PO4, CMA, CMB, or SBM. Based on the mean values of tibia ash in mg/tibia and tibia ash %, the mean bioavailabilities of P in the 3 increased-protein, reduced-fiber CM, 3 CCM, and 2 SBM relative to KH2PO4 were 18, 15, and 39%, respectively. A linear increase in weight gain and tibia ash was observed with addition of KH2PO4 or phytase to the P-deficient CM diets. It was estimated that 125 or 250 units/kg microbial phytase resulted in approximately 0.05 and 0.10% P being released from CM, respectively. In conclusion, the bioavailablity of the P in the new increased-protein, reduced-fiber CM was similar to that of CCM. Furthermore, phytase substantially and similarly increased the bioavailability of P in both types of CM.

Growth performance, carcass quality, fresh belly characteristics, and commercial bacon slicing yields of growing-finishing pigs fed a subtherapeutic dose of an antibiotic, a natural antimicrobial, or not fed an antibiotic or antimicrobial.

The objective was to compare growth performance, belly characteristics, and bacon slicing yields of growing-finishing pigs fed a subtherapeutic dose of an antibiotic, a natural antimicrobial, or a diet containing no antibiotics or antimicrobials. Barrows and gilts (96 each, initial BW: 27.52±3.98kg) were housed in 48 pens (8 replications per treatment) in a 2×3 factorial randomized complete block design. Pens were assigned 1 of 3 diets: antibiotic free, oregano or tylosin phosphate. Pigs were slaughtered at an average BW of 127.31±10.18kg. There were no differences among dietary treatments for growth performance (P≥0.06), carcass cutability (P≥0.42), loin quality (P≥0.28), fresh belly dimensional characteristics (P≥0.11), IV (P≥0.87) or bacon processing characteristics (P≥0.07). Given the lack of differences in meat quality from pigs fed diets without antibiotics, the implementation of VFD in the United States should not result in changes in pork quality.

Effects of graded levels of microbial phytase on apparent total tract digestibility of calcium and phosphorus and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in four sources of canola meal and in soybean meal fed to growing pigs.

One hundred twenty pigs were used to determine effects of graded levels of microbial phytase on the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of P and Ca and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in 4 sources of canola meal and in 1 source of soybean meal (SBM) fed to growing pigs. The 4 sources of canola meal were produced from 1 source of high-protein canola seeds and 2 sources of conventional canola seeds with 1 of the conventional canola seeds being divided into 2 separate batches before crushing. Pigs (16.2 ± 5.3 kg initial BW) were individually housed in metabolism crates and were randomly allotted to 1 of 20 diets in a 5 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments with 5 ingredients and 4 levels of phytase. There were 6 replicate pigs per diet. Five basal diets based on high-protein canola meal (CM-HP), high-temperature processed canola meal (CM-HT), low-temperature processed canola meal (CM-LT), conventional canola meal (CM-CV), or SBM were formulated. The basal diets contained no phytase. Fifteen additional diets were prepared by adding approximately 500, 1,500, or 2,500 phytase units/kg to each of the 5 basal diets. Feces were quantitatively collected for 5 d based on the marker-to-marker approach after a 7-d adaptation period. Results indicated that supplementation of microbial phytase increased (linear, < 0.05) the ATTD of Ca in diets containing CM-HP, CM-HT, CM-CV, and SBM but not in diets containing CM-LT. Microbial phytase also increased (linear and quadratic, < 0.05) the ATTD and STTD of P in all 5 ingredients. Compared with the CM-CV diets, the CM-HP diets had greater ( < 0.05) ATTD of Ca. The ATTD of Ca in the SBM diet was greater ( < 0.05) than in all canola meal diets, but no differences were observed in ATTD of Ca between CM-HT and CM-LT diets. The ATTD and the STTD of P were less ( < 0.05) in CM-HP, CM-HT, CM-LT, or CM-CV than in SBM if no microbial phytase was added, but no differences were observed in the ATTD and STTD of P in SBM, CM-HP, CM-HT, or CM-CV if the highest amount of phytase were added (interaction, < 0.05). Regression equations were developed to calculate the response to microbial phytase on the STTD of P in CM-HP, CM-HT, CM-LT, CM-CV, and SBM. In conclusion, inclusion of graded levels of microbial phytase increased the ATTD and STTD of P in CM-HP, CM-HT, CM-LT, CM-CV, and SBM and the response to microbial phytase added to each ingredient can be predicted by regression equations.

Effects of exogenous phytase supplementation on phosphorus metabolism and digestibility of beef cattle.

Objectives were to determine interactions between phytase inclusion and dietary P concentration on P utilization by beef cattle fed a starch-based diet. Six ruminally-fistulated steers (BW = 750 ± 61 kg) were allotted to a 6 × 6 Latin square design with a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Factors included phytase inclusion, at 0, 500, or 2,000 phytase units (FTU)/kg of diet DM, and dietary P concentrations, at 0.10% and 0.30% of total diet DM. Feed ingredients, fecal samples, and orts were composited within period, lyophilized and ground. Samples were analyzed for NDF, ADF, CP, fat, ash, total P, and other minerals. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS with animal as the experimental unit. The CORR procedure was used to compare blood and urinary P concentrations. There were no treatment interactions (P ≥ 0.30) for any parameter measured. There were no main effects (P ≥ 0.45) of phytase inclusion on DMI, total fecal output, apparent DM digestibility, water intake, or urinary output. Steers fed 0.10% P had decreased (P < 0.01) DMI and total fecal output, but increased (P < 0.01) apparent DM digestibility compared with steers fed 0.30% P. Although N intake and retention were not affected by treatment, steers fed the 0.10% P diet tended (P = 0.10) to absorb more N compared with steers fed 0.30% P; and, steers fed the 0.10% P diets excreted more N in the urine (P = 0.02) and less N in the feces (P < 0.01) compared with steers fed the 0.30% P diets. Steers fed the 0.10% P diets also consumed 70.1% less (P < 0.01) total P each day, and excreted 51.9% less (P < 0.01) P in feces and 94.6% less P in the urine (P < 0.01) compared with steers fed 0.30% P. Excretion of water-soluble P in the feces was greater (P < 0.01) on a g/d basis for steers fed 0.30% P when compared with steers fed 0.10% P. However, the proportion of total fecal P excreted as water-soluble P increased (P < 0.05) by 23.0% in steers fed 0.10% P compared with steers fed 0.30% P, regardless of phytase inclusion level. There was no effect of dietary phytase concentration on blood or urinary (P ≥ 0.27) P concentrations. Blood P concentration was positively correlated (r = 0.60; P < 0.01) to urinary P concentration when steers were fed 0.10% P; however, when steers were fed 0.30% P, there was no correlation (r = 0.36; P = 0.16) between blood and urine P. Regardless of dietary P concentration, phytase supplementation did not increase calculated P absorption or retention.

Inclusion of excess dietary calcium in diets for 100- to 130-kg growing pigs reduces feed intake and daily gain if dietary phosphorus is at or below the requirement.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that the requirement for standardized total tract digestible (STTD) Ca by pigs from 100 to 130 kg depends on the concentration of STTD P in the diet. Ninety pigs (average initial BW: 99.89 ± 3.34 kg) were randomly allotted to 15 experimental diets. Each diet was fed to 6 replicate pigs using a randomized complete block design. Fifteen corn and soybean meal-based diets were formulated and phytate and Na were constant among treatments. Diets were formulated using a 3 × 5 factorial design with diets containing 0.11%, 0.21%, or 0.31% STTD P and 0.12%, 0.29%, 0.46%, 0.61%, or 0.78% total Ca (0.08%, 0.18%, 0.29%, 0.38%, or 0.49% STTD Ca). The P concentrations ranged from 48 to 152% of the STTD P requirement for 100- to 125-kg pigs and the Ca concentrations ranged from 27 to 173% of the total Ca requirement. Experimental diets were fed for 28 d and pigs were individually housed. Pig and feeder weights were recorded at the beginning and at the conclusion of the experiment to calculate ADFI, ADG, and G:F. On d 28, all pigs were euthanized and the right femur was extracted. Ash, Ca, and P concentrations were determined from the de-fatted, dried femurs. Results indicated that as dietary concentrations of STTD Ca increased, ADFI decreased (main effect of Ca, < 0.05), regardless of the dietary concentration of P. The model to predict ADFI (ADFI = 3.6782 - 1.2722 × STTD Ca [%]; = 0.001) was dependent only on the concentration of dietary STTD Ca, but not on the concentration of dietary STTD P. In contrast, the model to predict ADG depended on both STTD Ca and STTD P (1.4556 - 1.4192 × STTD Ca [%] - 1.0653 × STTD P [%] + 4.2940 STTD Ca [%] × STTD P [%]; = 0.002). There were no effects of STTD Ca or STTD P on G:F. Linear increases were observed for bone ash, bone Ca, and bone P as dietary concentrations of STTD Ca increased for all concentrations of STTD P, but the increase was greater at the greatest concentration of STTD P than at lower concentrations (interaction, < 0.001). In conclusion, results indicate that the estimated requirement for dietary STTD Ca by 100- to 130-kg pigs needed to maximize ADG, bone ash, and bone Ca depends on the concentration of STTD P in the diet. Results also indicate that feeding Ca in excess of the current requirement for total Ca is detrimental to growth performance of pigs from 100 to 130 kg unless P is also included above the requirement.

Copper hydroxychloride improves growth performance and reduces diarrhea frequency of weanling pigs fed a corn-soybean meal diet but does not change apparent total tract digestibility of energy and acid hydrolyzed ether extract.

Three experiments were conducted to determine effects of Cu hydroxychloride on DE and ME, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of energy and acid hydrolyzed ether extract (AEE), and growth performance of pigs fed a diet based on corn and soybean meal (SBM). In Exp. 1, 80 weanling pigs (6.80 ± 1.69 kg) were allotted to 2 treatments with 4 pigs per pen and 10 pen replicates per diet. Pigs were fed a corn-SBM control diet that had Cu added to meet the requirement. A second diet was formulated by adding 150 mg Cu/kg from Cu hydroxychloride to the control diet. Both diets were fed for 4 wk. Results indicated that ADG, G:F, and final BW were greater ( ≤ 0.05) and fecal scores were reduced ( ≤ 0.05) for pigs fed the diet containing150 mg Cu/kg as hydroxychloride compared with pigs fed the control diet. In Exp. 2, 36 barrows (9.89 ± 1.21 kg) were randomly allotted to 3 dietary treatments and placed in metabolism crates. The control diet was based on corn and SBM and contained 20 mg Cu/kg. Two additional diets were formulated by adding 100 or 200 mg Cu/kg from Cu hydroxychloride to the control diet. Diets were fed for 28 d, with feces and urine being collected from d 9 to 14, d 16 to 21, and d 23 to 28. The DE and ME of diets and the ATTD of GE and AEE were not affected by dietary Cu concentrations, but increased ( < 0.01) by collection period. In Exp. 3, 150 pigs (10.22 ± 1.25 kg) were fed the same 3 diets as used in Exp. 2. Diets were provided on an ad libitum basis for 4 wk. Fecal scores were recorded, and on the last day of the experiment, blood samples were collected and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IgA, blood urea N, total protein, and albumin were measured. Phase 1 ADG and G:F and final BW on d 28 were greater ( ≤ 0.05) for pigs fed diets containing 100 or 200 mg Cu/kg supplemented by Cu hydroxychloride compared with pigs fed the control diet. Pigs fed the diets supplemented with Cu hydroxychloride also had reduced ( ≤ 0.05) overall fecal scores and diarrhea frequency compared with pigs fed the control diet. However, no differences among treatments were observed for concentrations of TNF-α, IgA, blood urea N, total protein, or albumin. In conclusion, supplementation of Cu as Cu hydroxychloride to diets fed to weanling pigs improved growth performance and reduced diarrhea frequency, but this did not appear to be a result of increased digestibility of energy or AEE.

Effects of full fat or defatted rice bran on growth performance and blood characteristics of weanling pigs.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of increased concentrations of full fat rice bran (FFRB) or defatted rice bran (DFRB) in diets without or with supplementation of an exogenous xylanase on growth performance and blood characteristics in weanling pigs. A total of 532 pigs (9.3 ± 0.5 kg initial BW) were allotted to 14 diets in 4 blocks and 8 replicate pens per diet in a randomized complete block design. There were 4 or 5 pigs per pen. A basal diet containing corn, soybean meal, and whey powder and 6 diets containing corn, soybean meal, whey powder, and 10, 20, or 30% FFRB or 10, 20, or 30% DFRB were used. Seven additional diets that were similar to the initial 7 diets with the exception that they also contained 16,000 units/kg of microbial xylanase were also formulated. On the last day of the 23-d experiment, 2 blood samples were collected from 1 pig in each pen. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IgA, and peptide YY (PYY) were measured in plasma samples and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), total protein, and albumin were measured in serum samples. Initial and final BW were not affected by the inclusion level of FFRB or DFRB or by the addition of xylanase. The ADFI linearly decreased ( < 0.05) as inclusion of FFRB increased in diets and there was a tendency ( = 0.08) for reduced ADFI as DFRB was increased in the diets. Pigs fed diets containing DFRB had greater ADFI ( < 0.05) than pigs fed diets containing FFRB. The ADG increased and then decreased (quadratic, < 0.05) with increasing level of FFRB or DFRB in the diets. The G:F linearly and quadratically increased ( < 0.05) as the inclusion of FFRB increased, and the G:F was greater ( < 0.05) in pigs fed diets containing FFRB than in pigs fed diets containing DFRB. The concentration of BUN linearly decreased ( < 0.05) when pigs were fed diets containing increasing levels of FFRB or DFRB. There was a tendency for the concentrations of TNF-α and PYY to linearly decrease ( = 0.09 and = 0.075, respectively) as the inclusion of FFRB increased in the diet. In conclusion, ADG of weanling pigs was not affected by at least 20% FFRB or DFRB and inclusion of 30% DFRB had no effect on the G:F whereas 30% FFRB increased the G:F. However, microbial xylanase did not influence growth performance under the conditions of this experiment and there was minimal influence of rice coproducts or xylanase on blood characteristics.

Effects of tallow, choice white grease, palm oil, corn oil, or soybean oil on apparent total tract digestibility of minerals in diets fed to growing pigs.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of supplementing diets fed to growing pigs with fat sources differing in their composition of fatty acids on the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of minerals. A diet based on corn, potato protein isolate, and 7% sucrose was formulated. Five additional diets that were similar to the previous diet with the exception that sucrose was replaced by 7% tallow, choice white grease, palm oil, corn oil, or soybean oil were also formulated. Diets were formulated to contain 0.70% Ca and 0.33% standardized total tract digestible P. Growing barrows ( = 60; 15.99 ± 1.48 kg initial BW) were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 2 blocks of 30 pigs, 6 dietary treatments, and 10 replicate pigs per treatment. Experimental diets were provided for 12 d with the initial 5 d being the adaptation period. Total feces were collected for a 5-d collection period using the marker-to-marker approach, and the ATTD of minerals, ether extract, and acid hydrolyzed ether extract was calculated for all diets. Digestibility of DM was greater ( < 0.05) in the diet containing soybean oil compared with the diet containing choice white grease or the basal diet, with all other diets being intermediate. The ATTD of Ca, S, and P was greater ( < 0.05) for pigs fed diets containing soybean oil, corn oil, palm oil, or tallow than for pigs fed the basal diet or the diet containing choice white grease. The ATTD of Mg, Zn, Mn, Na, and K were not different among dietary treatments. The ATTD of ether extract was greater ( < 0.05) in diets containing palm oil, corn oil, or soybean oil compared with the diet containing choice white grease, and the ATTD of acid hydrolyzed ether extract in the diet containing soybean oil was also greater ( < 0.05) than in the diet containing choice white grease. In conclusion, supplementation of a basal diet with tallow, palm oil, corn oil, or soybean oil may increase the ATTD of some macrominerals, but that appears not to be the case if choice white grease is used. There was no evidence of negative effects of the fat sources used in this experiment on the ATTD of any minerals.

Digestibility of energy, amino acids, and phosphorus in a novel source of soy protein concentrate and in soybean meal fed to growing pigs.

Three experiments were conducted to determine standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and AA, DE and ME, and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in a new source of soy protein concentrate (SPC) and in soybean meal (SBM). In Exp. 1, 9 barrows (initial BW: 13.08 ± 1.98 kg) were prepared with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and allotted to a triplicated 3 × 3 Latin square design with 3 diets and 3 periods. A nitrogen-free diet and 2 diets that contained corn starch and SPC or SBM as the sole source of CP and AA were formulated. Each period lasted 7 d, and ileal digesta were collected on d 6 and 7 of each period. The SID for Ile, Leu, Phe, Pro, and Tyr was greater ( < 0.05) in SPC than in SBM, but for CP and all other AA, no difference between SPC and SBM was observed. In Exp. 2, 24 barrows (initial BW: 13.94 ± 1.34 kg) were housed individually in metabolism crates and randomly allotted to 1 of 3 diets. A corn-based diet (96.9% corn) and 2 diets that contained corn and SPC or corn and SBM were formulated. Each diet was fed to 8 pigs. Feces and urine samples were collected using the marker to marker method with 5-d adaptation and 5-d collection periods. The DE and ME in SPC and SBM were calculated using the difference procedure. Results indicated that the ATTD of GE was lower ( < 0.05) in SBM than in corn and the DE and ME in SPC were greater ( < 0.01) than in corn and SBM. In Exp. 3, 40 barrows (initial BW: 14.12 ± 2.08 kg) were placed in metabolism crates and allotted to 4 diets in a randomized complete block design with 10 pigs per diet. Two diets were based on SPC or SBM as the sole source of P. Two additional diets were formulated by adding microbial phytase to diets that were otherwise similar to the 2 initial diets. Feces were collected for 5 d after a 5-d adaptation period and values for ATTD and STTD of P were calculated. No differences were observed in ATTD and STTD of P between SPC and SBM, but the ATTD and STTD of P of both SPC and SBM were greater ( < 0.01) if microbial phytase was added to the diets. In conclusion, the concentrations of DE and ME are greater in SPC than in SBM, but the SID of most AA and the STTD of P are not different between SPC and SBM.

Effects of production area and microbial phytase on the apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in soybean meal fed to growing pigs.

An experiment was conducted to determine if the area in which soybeans are grown influences the concentration of P, phytate, and macro- and microminerals in the soybean meal (SBM) produced from the beans and, therefore, also influences the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in SBM. The second objective was to test the hypothesis that inclusion of microbial phytase will increase the ATTD and STTD of P in SBM regardless of where the beans were grown. Twenty sources of SBM were procured from crushing facilities located in different regions of the United States that were separated into 3 zones: 1) the northern growing area (Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota), 2) the eastern growing area (Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio), and 3) the western growing area (Iowa, Missouri, and Nebraska). For each source of SBM, 2 diets based on cornstarch and SBM were formulated; one of these diets contained no microbial phytase and the other diet contained 500 units/kg of microbial phytase. Two hundred growing barrows (16.90 ± 1.79 kg initial BW) were individually placed in metabolism crates and allotted to a randomized complete block design with 40 diets and 5 replicate pigs per treatment. Feces were collected for 4 d after a 4-d adaptation period using the marker-to-marker procedure. Results indicated that there were no differences in concentration of Ca, P, phytate, and macro- and microminerals among SBM from the different zones. However, there was a tendency ( = 0.055) for an increase in concentration of nonphytate P in SBM from the western growing area (0.25%) compared with SBM from the northern growing area (0.23%) and the eastern growing area (0.23%). There were no differences in feed intake, absorbed P, ATTD of P, STTD of P, Ca intake, Ca output, or ATTD of Ca for pigs fed SBM from the 3 zones. However, there was a tendency (P = 0.066) for an increase in P intake and P output from pigs fed SBM from the western growing area compared with pigs fed SBM from the northern growing area. There was an increase ( < 0.05) in absorbed P, ATTD and STTD of P, and ATTD of Ca if microbial phytase was included in the diets, but the quantity of P and Ca that was excreted in the feces decreased ( < 0.001) if microbial phytase was used. Overall, no differences in ATTD and STTD of P exist among SBM produced in different areas of the United States, but microbial phytase will increase the digestibility of P in SBM.

Effects of particle size of yellow dent corn on physical characteristics of diets and growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs.

The objectives of this experiment were to determine effects of reducing particle size on growth performance, carcass characteristics, stomach morphology, and VFA concentration in the hindgut of growing-finishing pigs if diets were formulated to a constant ME. Thirty-six gilts and 36 barrows (32.00 ± 1.58 kg initial BW) were individually penned and randomly allotted to 4 dietary treatments in a 2 × 4 factorial design with sex (gilts and barrows) and corn particle size (i.e., 865, 677, 485, and 339 µm) as factors. The ME was determined in the same 4 batches of corn in a previous experiment to be 3,826, 3,868, 3,895, and 3,964 kcal/kg DM, respectively. Pigs were fed a 3-phase program from 32 to 129 kg. Within each phase, 4 corn-soybean meal diets were formulated, and the only difference among diets was that the corn used was ground to the 4 specified particle sizes and soybean oil was added to the diets in decreasing amounts as the corn particle size was reduced to reflect the increased ME in corn with reduced particle size. Results of the experiment indicated that initial BW, final BW, overall ADFI, and overall ADG were not different among treatments, but final G:F for gilts decreased from 0.38 to 0.35 (linear, < 0.05) as the particle size decreased from 865 to 339 µm, but no difference was observed for barrows (interaction, < 0.05). However, G:F did not change if calculated based on HCW because dressing percentage increased (linear, < 0.01) from 79.30 to 80.29% as the particle size decreased, which was partly due to a reduction (linear, < 0.01) from 3.01 to 2.52 kg in empty intestinal weight. Back fat depth, HCW, loin eye area, and carcass fat-free lean percentage were not different among treatments. There were no incidences of ulcers in the esophageal region of the stomach regardless of the particle size of corn, but parakeratosis in the esophageal region increased ( < 0.05) as the particle size of corn decreased. The concentration of acetate, proprionate, and butyrate in the cecal contents decreased (linear, < 0.01) from 2,537 to 1,846, from 872 to 617, and from 702 to 226 µg/mL, respectively, and the pH in the cecal and colon contents increased (linear, < 0.01) from 6.04 to 6.64 and from 5.85 to 6.25, respectively, as the particle size decreased. In conclusion, by using corn ground to a smaller particle size, the amount of added fat may be reduced in the diets without affecting growth performance of barrows or carcass composition of barrows and gilts.

Effect of phytate, microbial phytase, fiber, and soybean oil on calculated values for apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of calcium and apparent total tract digestibility of phosphorus in fish meal fed to growing pigs.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of phytate, phytase, fiber, and soybean oil on apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of Ca and on ATTD of P in fish meal fed to growing pigs. In Exp. 1, 40 growing pigs (initial average BW: 19.16 ± 2.04 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 5 diets with 8 pigs per treatment and placed in metabolism crates. Four diets were used in a 2 ´ 2 factorial design with 2 levels of phytate (0 or 0.7%) and 2 levels of microbial phytase (0 or 500 phytase units/kg). The diet containing no phytate was based on sucrose, cornstarch, fish meal, casein, and soybean oil, and the diet containing 0.7% phytate was based on corn, corn germ, fish meal, casein, and soybean oil. A Ca-free diet was used to determine basal endogenous losses of Ca. Feces were collected from d 6 to 13 after a 5-d adaptation period. Results indicated that the ATTD and STTD of Ca in fish meal and the ATTD of P increased ( < 0.001) if phytase was used and were greater ( < 0.05) in the diets based on corn and corn germ. Experiment 2 was conducted to determine the effects of fiber and soybean oil on the ATTD and STTD of Ca and the ATTD of P in fish meal. Fifty growing pigs (initial average BW: 19.36 ± 0.99 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 5 diets with 10 pigs per treatment. Two diets contained sucrose, cornstarch, fish meal, casein, and either 0 or 8% of a synthetic source of fiber. Two additional diets contained fish meal, casein, corn, and either 1 or 7% soybean oil. A Ca-free diet was also used. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and fecal samples were collected. Results indicated that fiber increased ( < 0.001) the ATTD and STTD of Ca and the ATTD of P, but the ATTD and STTD of Ca or the ATTD of P were not affected by soybean oil. In agreement with the results of Exp. 1, the ATTD and STTD of Ca and the ATTD of P in the corn-based diet were greater ( < 0.05) than those in the cornstarch-based diet. In conclusion, phytase and fiber increased the ATTD and STTD of Ca and the ATTD of P in fish meal, but inclusion of soybean oil did not affect digestibility of Ca or P. The observation that values for the ATTD and STTD of Ca and ATTD of P are greater in corn-based diets than in cornstarch-based diets indicates that values for the digestibility of Ca and P obtained in cornstarch-based diets may not always be representative for the digestibility in practical corn-based diets.

Effects of microbial phytase on the apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in rice coproducts fed to growing pigs.

The objectives of this experiment were to determine the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P and the effect of microbial phytase on ATTD and STTD of P in full-fat rice bran (FFRB), defatted rice bran (DFRB), brown rice, broken rice, and rice mill feed when fed to pigs. Ninety-six barrows (initial BW of 19.4 ± 1.4 kg) were allotted to 12 diets with 8 replicate pigs per diet in a randomized complete block design. A basal diet based on corn and soybean meal was formulated. Five additional diets containing corn, soybean meal, and each rice coproduct were also formulated, and the ratio between corn and soybean meal in these diets was similar to that in the basal diet. Six additional diets that were similar to the initial 6 diets with the exception that 1,000 units of microbial phytase were added to the diets were also formulated. The ATTD and STTD of P were calculated for each diet using the direct procedure, and the ATTD and STTD of P in each rice coproduct were calculated using the difference procedure. Results of the experiment indicated that the concentration of P in feces was reduced (P < 0.05) from pigs fed diets with microbial phytase compared with pigs fed diets without phytase. No differences were observed between the basal diet and the broken rice diet, but the ATTD and the STTD of P in those diets was greater (P < 0.05) than in all other diets both without and with phytase. Among the rice coproducts, the greatest (P < 0.05) ATTD and STTD of P were observed for broken rice regardless of inclusion of phytase. If no microbial phytase was used, the values for STTD of P in brown rice, FFRB, DFRB, and rice mill feed were not different, but if microbial phytase was included in the diet, ATTD and STTD of P in brown rice was greater (P < 0.05) than in FFRB, DFRB, and rice mill feed. The STTD of P in brown rice, FFRB, and rice mill feed was greater (P < 0.05) if microbial phytase was used than if no microbial phytase was used. Addition of microbial phytase to the diets also increased (P < 0.05) the ATTD of Ca regardless of the rice coproducts used. In conclusion, the STTD of P is greater in broken rice than in all other rice coproducts. The STTD of P in brown rice, FFRB, DFRB, and rice mill feed is relatively low due to the high concentration of phytate in these ingredients, but addition of microbial phytase will increase the STTD of P in most rice coproducts.

Apparent and standardized total tract digestibility by growing pigs of phosphorus in canola meal from North America and 00-rapeseed meal and 00-rapeseed expellers from Europe without and with microbial phytase.

An experiment was conducted to determine apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) by growing pigs of P in canola meal, 00-rapeseed meal, and 00-rapeseed expellers. Canola meal and 00-rapeseed meal are the coproducts produced after the residual oil has been solvent extracted from the prepressed canola seeds and 00-rapeseeds, respectively, whereas 00-rapeseeed expellers is the coproduct from 00-rapeseeds that have been only expeller pressed. Two hundred sixteen barrows (18.0 ± 1.5 kg initial BW) were allotted to 36 diets and 6 replicate pigs per diet. Five samples of canola meal from solvent-extraction crushing plants in North America, 8 samples of 00-rapeseed meal from solvent-extraction crushing plants in Europe, and 5 samples of 00-rapeseed expellers from mechanical-press crushing plants in Europe were used in the experiment. Eighteen diets were prepared by including 40% of each source of canola meal, 00-rapeseed meal, or 00-rapeseed expellers in 1 diet. Eighteen additional diets were formulated by adding 1,500 units of microbial phytase to the diets. The only source of P in the diets was canola meal, 00-rapeseed meal, or 00-rapeseed expellers. Pigs were placed in metabolism crates that allowed for total fecal collection. Pigs were fed at 2.5 times their estimated energy requirement for maintenance. Ingredients, diets, and feces were analyzed for P, and the ATTD and STTD of each source of canola meal, 00-rapeseed meal, and 00-rapeseed expellers were calculated. A value for endogenous P loss of 190 mg/kg DMI was used to calculate the STTD of P. Results indicated that the ATTD and STTD of P for canola meal were not different from values obtained in 00-rapeseed meal, and the ATTD and STTD of P in 00-rapeseed meal were not different from values for 00-rapeseed expellers. The ATTD and STTD of P increased (P < 0.001) from 44.99 and 48.82% to 64.08 and 67.97% for canola meal, from 46.77 and 50.36% to 63.53 and 67.29% for 00-rapeseed meal, and from 44.83 and 48.60% to 69.18 and 72.99%, respectively, for 00-rapeseed expellers by adding microbial phytase to the diets. In conclusion, although the concentration of ether extract is much greater in 00-rapeseed expellers than in 00-rapeseed meal and canola meal, the ATTD and STTD of P for these ingredients are not different, and addition of microbial phytase results in improved digestibility of P in canola meal, 00-rapeseed meal, and 00-rapeseed expellers.

Effects of microbial phytase on apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of calcium in calcium supplements fed to growing pigs.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that differences in the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of Ca exist among Ca supplements and that inclusion of microbial phytase increases the ATTD and STTD of Ca. One hundred and four growing barrows (average initial BW of 17.73 ± 2.53 kg) were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 13 dietary treatments and 8 pigs per treatment. A basal diet containing corn, cornstarch, potato protein isolate, soybean oil, calcium carbonate, monosodium phosphate, vitamins, and minerals was formulated. Five additional diets were formulated by adding monocalcium phosphate (MCP), dicalcium phosphate (DCP), calcium carbonate, Lithothamnium calcareum Ca, or a high-Ca sugar beet co-product to the basal diet at the expense of cornstarch. Six additional diets that were similar to the previous 6 diets with the exception that they also contained 500 units per kilogram of microbial phytase were also formulated. A Ca-free diet was used to determine basal endogenous losses of Ca. Feces were collected using the marker-to-marker approach. Results indicated that regardless of inclusion of microbial phytase, MCP had the greatest (P < 0.05) ATTD and STTD of Ca. The ATTD and STTD of Ca in DCP were greater (P < 0.05) than in calcium carbonate, L. calcareumC a, or in the sugar beet co-product, but no differences were observed among the ATTD and STTD of Ca in calcium carbonate, L. calcareum Ca, or sugar beet co-product. Inclusion of microbial phytase increased (P < 0.05) the ATTD and STTD of Ca in the diets, but this was not the case in the Ca supplements. Regardless of inclusion of microbial phytase, the ATTD of P was greater ( P< 0.05) in pigs fed basal, MCP, or DCP diets than in pigs fed calcium carbonate, L. calcareum Ca, or the sugar beet co-product, but pigs fed calcium carbonate diets had greater ( P< 0.05) ATTD of P than pigs fed L. calcareumCa or the sugar beet co-product. Regardless of Ca source, inclusion of microbial phytase increased (P < 0.001) the ATTD of P. In conclusion, MCP has the greatest ATTD and STTD of Ca among the calcium supplements used in this experiment, followed by DCP. Basal, MCP, and DCP diets had greater ATTD of P than the other diets, and inclusion of microbial phytase increased the ATTD and STTD of Ca and the ATTD of P in the diets.

Effects of feeding canola meal from high-protein or conventional varieties of canola seeds on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and cutability of pigs.

The objectives of this experiment were to determine growth performance, visceral mass differences, carcass characteristics, fresh meat quality, and carcass cutability of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing high-protein canola meal (CM-HP) or conventional canola meal (CM-CV). Seven dietary treatments were fed to investigate effects of increasing inclusion rates of CM-HP or CM-CV in a corn-soybean meal diet containing no canola meal (control). Inclusion rates were 33, 66, or 100% replacement of soybean meal with either CM-HP or CM-CV. Pigs (140 barrows and 140 gilts; 2 barrows and 2 gilts per pen) were fed experimental diets in 3 phases with each phase lasting 35, 28, and 28 d, respectively. Within each phase, diets were formulated to be similar in concentrations of standardized ileal digestible indispensable AA and in standardized total tract digestible P, but NE concentrations were not equalized among diets. At the conclusion of the experiment, 1 pig per pen was harvested. Over the 91-d growing-finishing period, no effects of CM-HP on ADG, ADFI, or G:F were observed, but final BW tended ( = 0.06) to be reduced as increasing levels of CM-HP were included in the diets. There was a linear increase ( < 0.05) in ADFI and a linear reduction ( < 0.05) in G:F as CM-CV inclusion level increased. Pigs fed CM-CV also had greater ( < 0.05) ADG and ADFI than pigs fed diets containing CM-HP. There was a linear increase ( < 0.01) in liver weights, as a percentage of live weight, as CM-CV inclusion increased, but that was not the case if CM-HP was included in the diets. There was a linear increase ( < 0.05) in kidney weights, as a percentage of live weight, as CM-HP or CM-CV inclusion increased. There were no differences among treatments for ending live weight, HCW, carcass yield, loin eye area, 10th rib backfat thickness, or estimated carcass lean. Shear force, cook loss, LM moisture, LM extractible lipid, and drip loss were also not different among treatment groups. There were no differences among treatments for any subjective LM quality evaluations (color, marbling, firmness). Pigs fed CM-HP had increased ( < 0.05) boneless lean cutting yields and boneless carcass cutting yields compared with pigs fed CM-CV. In conclusion, CM-HP and CM-CV may fully replace soybean meal as protein supplements in growing-finishing pig diets without substantially impairing pig performance or carcass quality.

Effects of high-protein or conventional canola meal on growth performance, organ weights, bone ash, and blood characteristics of weanling pigs.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate effects of 2 high-protein canola meals (canola meal A [CMA]: 45.69% CP and canola meal B [CMB]: 46.97% CP) and a conventional canola meal (CM-CV: 35.10% CP) on growth performance, organ weights, bone ash, and blood parameters of weanling pigs. Inclusion rates of canola meal (CM) in the diets were 10, 20, 30, or 40% for CMA and CM-CV, whereas inclusions were 10, 20, or 30% for CMB. A control diet containing no CM was also formulated. Therefore, 12 diets were used in this experiment. A total of 420 pigs (initial BW: 9.8 ± 1.1 kg) were divided into 3 blocks and randomly allotted to 1 of the 12 diets with 8 replicate pens per treatment and 4 or 5 pigs per pen. The ADG, ADFI, and G:F were calculated, and at the conclusion of the experiment, 1 pig in each pen was euthanized to allow measurements of organ weights, collection of blood, and collection of the third and fourth metacarpals from the left foot. Results indicate that ADFI was linearly (P < 0.05) decreased if inclusion of CMA, CMB, or CM-CV was increased. Average daily gain for pigs fed CMA tended to increase quadratically with the maximum response observed at 10 or 20% CM inclusion in the diet ( P= 0.06). However, G:F was linearly (P < 0.05) increased by adding CMA or CM-CV to the diets. Liver weights were also linearly (P < 0.05) increased if pigs were fed diets containing CMB, but kidney weights were linearly (P < 0.05) decreased by the addition of CM-CV to the diets. Thyroid gland weights increased linearly (P < 0.05) for pigs fed diets containing CMA. No differences were observed in heart and bone weights if CM was added to the diets. Addition of any of the 3 CM linearly (P < 0.05) increased bone ash percentage in the metacarpals. Inclusion of CMA or CM-CV linearly (P < 0.05) decreased concentrations of serum triiodothyronine, and the inclusion of CMA also linearly (P < 0.05) decreased serum thyroxine concentrations. No differences were observed for complete blood counts or blood urea nitrogen if CM was added to the diets. In conclusion, up to 20% high-protein CM or CM-CV may be included in diets for weanling pigs from 2 wk postweaning without reducing growth performance or negatively affecting organ, bone, or blood parameters. In some instances, it may also be possible to use greater inclusion rates.

Supplementation of organic and inorganic selenium to diets using grains grown in various regions of the United States with differing natural Se concentrations and fed to grower-finisher swine.

Grains grown in various regions of the United States vary in their innate or natural Se contents. A regional study evaluated the effects of adding inorganic Se (sodium selenite) or organic Se (Se yeast) to diets with differing innate Se contents. A 2 × 2 + 1 factorial experiment evaluating 2 Se sources (organic or inorganic) at 2 Se levels (0.15 or 0.30 mg/kg) in 18 total replicates (n = 360 total pigs). A basal diet was fed without supplemental Se and served as the negative (basal) control. The study was conducted as a randomized complete block design in 9 states (Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Nebraska, North Carolina, Ohio, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin) with each station conducting 2 replicates. Pigs were fed from 25 to approximately 115 kg BW. Similar dietary formulations were used at each station, incorporating a common source of trace mineral and Se premixes. Three pigs per treatment in 16 replicates (n = 240) were bled at 55, 85, and 115 kg BW and serum Se and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities were determined. Three pigs (n = 260) from each treatment pen were killed at 115 kg BW and issues (liver, loin, and hair) were analyzed for Se. The corn Se content from the various states ranged from 0.026 to 0.283 mg Se/kg while the soybean meal Se content ranged from 0.086 to 0.798 mg Se/kg. Tissue and serum Se concentrations were greater (P < 0.01) when supplemental organic Se was fed, whereas serum GSH-Px was greater (P < 0.01) as Se level increased. There were linear increases (P < 0.01) in loin and quadratic increases (P < 0.01) in liver and hair Se concentrations as dietary Se level increased within each state. There was a source × level interaction (P < 0.01) for each tissue resulting in a greater increase when organic Se was fed. Serum Se and GSH-Px activity increased (P < 0.01) when both Se sources were fed and plateaued at each state at 0.15 mg Se/kg. There was a high and significant correlation between each tissue Se, serum Se, and GSH-Px activity to dietary Se level indicating that those states having greater grain natural Se contents also had greater tissue Se concentrations. These results indicate that a large difference in corn and soybean meal Se concentrations exists between states, that the addition of organic or inorganic Se to these grains increased tissue and serum Se in each state, and that organic Se was incorporated at greater concentrations in the loin, liver, and hair tissues of grower-finisher pigs than inorganic Se.

Concentration of metabolizable energy and digestibility of energy, phosphorus, and amino acids in lemna protein concentrate fed to growing pigs.

Lemna protein concentrate (LPC; 68.0% CP) is produced by extracting protein from de-oiled and dehydrated biomaterials from plants of the Lemnaceae family and may be used as a protein source for animals. There are, however, no published data on the nutritional value of LPC fed to pigs. Three experiments were, therefore, conducted to determine the concentration of ME, the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P, and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA in LPC and to compare these values to values for fish meal and soybean meal (SBM). Experiment 1 was conducted to determine the ME of LPC, fish meal, SBM, and corn. Thirty-two barrows (initial BW: 16.8 ± 2.8 kg) were placed in metabolism cages and allotted to a randomized complete block design with 4 diets and 8 replicate pigs per diet. A corn-based diet and 3 diets that contained corn and LPC, fish meal, or SBM were formulated. Feces and urine were collected for 5 d after a 5-d adaptation period, and all samples were analyzed for GE. Results indicated that the concentration of ME was not different among corn, fish meal, and SBM (3,855, 3,904, and 4,184 kcal/kg DM, respectively), but there was a tendency (P = 0.08) for a reduced ME in LPC (3,804 kcal/kg DM) compared with SBM. In Exp. 2, 24 barrows (initial BW: 12.5 ± 2.5 kg) were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 3 diets and 8 replicate pigs per diet and used to determine the STTD of P in LPC, fish meal, and SBM. Three diets that each contained 1 of the 3 test ingredients as the sole source of P were formulated. Pigs were placed in metabolism cages, and feces were collected for 5 d after a 5-d adaptation period. The STTD of P in LPC (72.8%) was not different from the STTD of P in fish meal (65.6%), but tended (P = 0.07) to be greater than in SBM (62.8%). The SID of AA in LPC, SBM, and fish meal was determined in Exp. 3. Eight barrows (initial BW: 21.4 ± 4.0 kg) were equipped with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and randomly allotted to a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design. A N-free diet and 3 cornstarch-based diets in which SBM, SBM and LPC or SBM and fish meal were the only sources of AA were formulated. The SID of most indispensable AA was greater (P < 0.05) in fish meal than in LPC, but the overall SID of AA was not different between fish meal and LPC. In conclusion, the ME and the STTD of P are not different between LPC and fish meal, but there is a tendency for greater ME in SBM than in LPC, whereas the STTD of P tends to be greater in LPC than in SBM. The SID of the most indispensable AA is greater in fish meal than in LPC.

Effects of protein concentration and heat treatment on concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy and on amino acid digestibility in four sources of canola meal fed to growing pigs.

Two experiments were conducted to determine DE and ME and the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and AA in 4 sources of canola meal (high-protein [CM-HP], high-temperature-processed [CM-HT], low-temperature-processed [CM-LT], and conventional [CM-CV] canola meal) and in conventional soybean meal (SBM) fed to growing pigs. In Exp. 1, 48 growing barrows (initial BW: 39.7 ± 1.58 kg) were individually housed in metabolism cages and randomly assigned to 6 treatments in a randomized complete block design with 2 blocks of 24 pigs and 8 replicate pigs per treatment. The 6 diets included a corn-based basal diet and 5 diets that were formulated by mixing corn and 1 of the sources of canola meal (39.0% inclusion) or SBM (28.5% inclusion). Feces and urine were collected for 5 d following a 5-d adaptation period. The DE and ME in each source of canola meal and in SBM were calculated using the difference procedure. The DE and ME in the 4 sources of canola meal were less (P < 0.05) than in corn and SBM (DE: 2,854, 2,680, 2,892, and 2,883 vs. 3,324 and 3,784 kcal/kg, respectively; ME: 2,540, 2,251, 2,681, and 2,637 vs. 3,213 and 3,523 kcal/kg, respectively). No differences in the concentrations of DE and ME were observed among the 4 sources of canola meal. In Exp. 2, 12 growing barrows (initial BW: 34.0 ± 1.41 kg) that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were randomly allotted to a repeated 6 × 6 Latin square design with 6 diets and 6 periods in each square. Five diets that contained 35% SBM or 45% of 1 of the 4 sources of canola meal as the sole source of CP and AA were formulated, and a N-free diet was also used. Each period lasted 7 d and ileal digesta were collected on d 6 and 7 of each period. The AID and SID of CP and all AA in SBM were greater (P < 0.05) than in the 4 sources of canola meal. Compared with CM-CV, CM-HP had greater (P < 0.05) AID of Ile, Lys, Asp, Cys, and Pro and greater (P < 0.05) SID of Lys and Cys. However, no differences between CM-HT and CM-LT were observed. In conclusion, regardless of the concentration of CP and the processing used, canola meal provides less DE and ME to pigs than corn and SBM, and the SID of AA in canola meal is less than in SBM. The processing temperature used in this experiment did not affect DE and ME or SID of AA in canola meal. The SID of Lys and Cys was greater in CM-HP than in CM-CV.