LPC-DHA/EPA-Enriched Diets Increase Brain DHA and Modulate Behavior in Mice That Express Human APOE4.

Compared with APOE3, APOE4 is associated with greater age-related cognitive decline and higher risk of neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, development of supplements that target APOE genotype-modulated processes could provide a great benefit for the aging population. Evidence suggests a link between APOE genotype and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); however, clinical studies with current DHA supplements have produced negative results in dementia. The lack of beneficial effects with current DHA supplements may be related to limited bioavailability, as the optimal form of DHA for brain uptake is lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC)-DHA. We previously developed a method to enrich the LPC-DHA content of krill oil through lipase treatment (LT-krill oil), which resulted in fivefold higher enrichment in brain DHA levels in wild-type mice compared with untreated krill oil. Here, we evaluated the effect of a control diet, diet containing krill oil, or a diet containing LT-krill oil in APOE3- and APOE4-targeted replacement mice (APOE-TR mice; treated from 4 to 12 months of age). We found that DHA levels in the plasma and hippocampus are lower in APOE4-TR mice and that LT-krill oil increased DHA levels in the plasma and hippocampus of both APOE3- and APOE4-TR mice. In APOE4-TR mice, LT-krill oil treatment resulted in higher levels of the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A and improved performance on the novel object recognition test. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that LPC-DHA/EPA-enriched krill oil can increase brain DHA and improve memory-relevant behavior in mice that express APOE4. Therefore, long-term use of LT-krill oil supplements may on some level protect against age-related neurodegeneration.

Efficient Enrichment of Retinal DHA with Dietary Lysophosphatidylcholine-DHA: Potential Application for Retinopathies.

Although decreased retinal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a known risk factor for retinopathy, currently available omega-3 fatty acid supplements, which are absorbed as triacylglycerol (TAG), do not significantly enrich retinal DHA. We tested the hypothesis that lysophospahtidylcholine (LPC)-DHA which is absorbed as phospholipid, would efficiently increase retinal DHA because of the presence of LPC-specific transporter at the blood-retina barrier. In normal rats, LPC-DHA and di-DHA phosphatidylcholine (PC), which generates LPC-DHA during digestion, increased retinal DHA by 101% and 45%, respectively, but TAG-DHA had no significant effect at the same dose (40 mg/kg, 30 days). In normal mice, both sn-1 DHA LPC and sn-2 DHA LPC increased retinal DHA by 80%, but free DHA had no effect. Lipase-treated krill oil (which contains LPC-DHA and LPC-EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), but not normal krill oil (which has little LPC), increased both retinal DHA (+76%) and EPA (100-fold). Fish oil, however, had no effect, whether lipase-treated or not. These studies show that retinal DHA can be efficiently increased by dietary LPC-DHA, but not by TAG-DHA or free DHA. Since DHA is known to be protective against retinopathy and other eye diseases, this study provides a novel nutraceutical approach for the prevention/treatment of these diseases.

Plasma BDNF is a more reliable biomarker than erythrocyte omega-3 index for the omega-3 fatty acid enrichment of brain.

Enriching brain DHA is believed to be beneficial for the prevention and treatment of several neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. An impediment in assessing the effectiveness of the treatments is the lack of a reliable biomarker for brain DHA. The commonly used erythrocyte omega-3 index is not suitable for brain because of the involvement of unique transporter at the blood brain barrier (BBB). We recently showed that dietary lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC)-DHA significantly increases brain DHA, which results in increase of brain BDNF. Since there is bidirectional transport of BDNF through the BBB, we tested the hypothesis that plasma BDNF may be used as biomarker for brain DHA enrichment. We altered the brain DHA in rats and mice over a wide range using different dietary carriers of DHA, and the correlations between the increase in brain omega-3 index with the increases in plasma BDNF and the erythrocyte index were determined. Whereas the increase in brain omega-3 index positively correlated with the increase in plasma BDNF, it negatively correlated with the erythrocyte index. These results show that the plasma BDNF is more reliable than the erythrocyte index as biomarker for assessing the effectiveness of omega-3 supplements in improving brain function.

Lipase Treatment of Dietary Krill Oil, but Not Fish Oil, Enables Enrichment of Brain Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid.

SCOPE: Currently available omega-3 fatty acid supplements do not enrich the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) of the adult brain because they are absorbed as triacylglycerol, whereas the transporter at the blood brain barrier requires lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC)-DHA. The hypothesis that treatment of krill oil (KO), which contains DHA/eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) at the SN2 position of phosphatidylcholine, with SN1-specific lipase will generate LPC-DHA/EPA and which can be absorbed intact and transported into the brain, is tested. METHODS: KO and fish oil (FO) are treated with Mucor meihei lipase, incorporated into AIN 93G diet, and fed to 2-month-old mice for 30 days. Fatty acid composition is analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is measured by ELISA. RESULTS: Lipase-treated (LT) KO increases brain DHA and EPA, respectively, 5-and 70-fold better than untreated (UT) KO. FO, whether lipase-treated or not, has no effect on brain DHA/EPA. LTKO is also more efficient in enriching liver DHA/EPA, but less efficient than UTKO and FO in enriching adipose tissue and heart. Brain BDNF is significantly increased by LTKO, but only marginally by other preparations. CONCLUSIONS: Pretreatment of dietary KO with lipase enables it to efficiently increase brain DHA/EPA because of the generation of LPC-DHA/EPA.

Enrichment of brain docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is highly dependent upon the molecular carrier of dietary DHA: lysophosphatidylcholine is more efficient than either phosphatidylcholine or triacylglycerol.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is highly concentrated in the brain, and its deficiency is associated with several neurological disorders including Alzheimer's disease. However, the currently used supplements do not appreciably enrich brain DHA, although they enrich most other tissues. We tested the hypothesis that the ability of the dietary carrier to augment brain DHA depends upon the generation of DHA-lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), the preferred carrier of DHA across the blood brain barrier. We compared the efficacy of DHA-triacylglycerol (TAG), di-DHA phosphatidylcholine (PC) and DHA-LPC to enrich brain DHA following their gavage to normal rats for 30 days, all at a dose of 10 mg DHA/day. The results show that DHA from TAG, which is released as free DHA or monoacylglycerol during digestion and is absorbed as TAG in chylomicrons, was incorporated preferentially into adipose tissue and heart but not into brain. In contrast, LPC-DHA increased brain DHA by up to 100% but had no effect on adipose tissue. Di-DHA PC, which generates both free DHA and LPC-DHA during the digestion, enriched DHA in brain, as well as in heart and liver. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor was increased by di-DHA PC and DHA-LPC, but not by TAG-DHA, showing that enrichment of brain DHA correlated with its functional effect. We conclude that dietary DHA from TAG or from natural PC (sn-2 position) is not suitable for brain enrichment, whereas DHA from LPC (at either sn-1 or sn-2 position) or from sn-1 position of PC efficiently enriches the brain and is functionally effective.

Tissue-dependent effects of cis-9,trans-11- and trans-10,cis-12-CLA isomers on glucose and lipid metabolism in adult male mice.

Mixtures of the two major conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers trans-10,cis-12-CLA and cis-9,trans-11-CLA are used as over the counter supplements for weight loss. Because of the reported adverse effects of CLA on insulin sensitivity in some mouse studies, we sought to compare the impact of dietary t10c12-CLA and c9t11-CLA on liver, adipose tissue, and systemic metabolism of adult lean mice. We fed 8 week-old C57Bl/6J male mice with low fat diets (10.5% Kcal from fat) containing 0.8% t10c12-CLA or c9t11-CLA for 9 or 38 days. Diets containing c9t11-CLA had minimal impact on the endpoints studied. However, 7 days after starting the t10c12-CLA diet, we observed a dramatic reduction in fat mass measured by NMR spectroscopy, which interestingly rebounded by 38 days. This rebound was apparently due to a massive accumulation of lipids in the liver, because adipose tissue depots were visually undetectable. Hepatic steatosis and the disappearance of adipose tissue after t10c12-CLA feeding was associated with elevated plasma insulin levels and insulin resistance, compared to mice fed a control diet or c9t11-CLA diet. Unexpectedly, despite being insulin resistant, mice fed t10c12-CLA had normal levels of blood glucose, without signs of impaired glucose clearance. Hepatic gene expression and fatty acid composition suggested enhanced hepatic de novo lipogenesis without an increase in expression of gluconeogenic genes. These data indicate that dietary t10c12-CLA may alter hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism indirectly, in response to the loss of adipose tissue in mice fed a low fat diet.

Dietary lysophosphatidylcholine-EPA enriches both EPA and DHA in the brain: potential treatment for depression.

EPA and DHA protect against multiple metabolic and neurologic disorders. Although DHA appears more effective for neuroinflammatory conditions, EPA is more beneficial for depression. However, the brain contains negligible amounts of EPA, and dietary supplements fail to increase it appreciably. We tested the hypothesis that this failure is due to absorption of EPA as triacylglycerol, whereas the transporter at the blood-brain barrier requires EPA as lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). We compared tissue uptake in normal mice gavaged with equal amounts (3.3 µmol/day) of either LPC-EPA or free EPA (surrogate for current supplements) for 15 days and also measured target gene expression. Compared with the no-EPA control, LPC-EPA increased brain EPA >100-fold (from 0.03 to 4 µmol/g); free EPA had little effect. Furthermore, LPC-EPA, but not free EPA, increased brain DHA 2-fold. Free EPA increased EPA in adipose tissue, and both supplements increased EPA and DHA in the liver and heart. Only LPC-EPA increased EPA and DHA in the retina, and expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, cyclic AMP response element binding protein, and 5-hydroxy tryptamine (serotonin) receptor 1A in the brain. These novel results show that brain EPA can be increased through diet. Because LPC-EPA increased both EPA and DHA in the brain, it may help in the treatment of depression as well as neuroinflammatory diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease.

Dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as lysophosphatidylcholine, but not as free acid, enriches brain DHA and improves memory in adult mice.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is uniquely concentrated in the brain, and is essential for its function, but must be mostly acquired from diet. Most of the current supplements of DHA, including fish oil and krill oil, do not significantly increase brain DHA, because they are hydrolyzed to free DHA and are absorbed as triacylglycerol, whereas the transporter at blood brain barrier is specific for phospholipid form of DHA. Here we show that oral administration of DHA to normal adult mice as lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) (40 mg DHA/kg) for 30 days increased DHA content of the brain by >2-fold. In contrast, the same amount of free DHA did not increase brain DHA, but increased the DHA in adipose tissue and heart. Moreover, LPC-DHA treatment markedly improved the spatial learning and memory, as measured by Morris water maze test, whereas free DHA had no effect. The brain derived neurotrophic factor increased in all brain regions with LPC-DHA, but not with free DHA. These studies show that dietary LPC-DHA efficiently increases brain DHA content and improves brain function in adult mammals, thus providing a novel nutraceutical approach for the prevention and treatment of neurological diseases associated with DHA deficiency, such as Alzheimer's disease.

Minor Constituents in Rice Bran Oil and Sesame Oil Play a Significant Role in Modulating Lipid Homeostasis and Inflammatory Markers in Rats.

The effects of feeding rats with groundnut oil (GNO), rice bran oil (RBO), and sesame oil (SESO) on serum lipids, liver lipids, and inflammatory markers were evaluated in rats. Male Wistar rats were fed with AIN-93 diet supplemented with 10 wt% of GNO, RBO, and SESO in the form of native (N) and minor constituent-removed (MCR) oils. Rats given RBO and SESO showed significant reduction in serum and liver lipids, 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine, cytokines in liver, and eicosanoids in leukocytes as compared with the rats given GNO and MCR oils. The rats fed with native oils of RBO and SESO showed an upregulation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-2 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and downregulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65. These effects of native oil were significantly compromised when rats were given MCR oils. In conclusion, the minor constituents significantly support the hypolipidemic and anti-inflammatory properties of RBO and SESO.

Rats given linseed oil in microemulsion forms enriches the brain synaptic membrane with docosahexaenoic acid and enhances the neurotransmitter levels in the brain.

Long chain n-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are essential for the normal functioning of the brain. The vegetarian sections of the population get only alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) through their diet as a source of n-3 fatty acids. Hence, in this group of the population, the ALAs need to be converted to DHA through the action of the desaturase and the elongase enzymes. However, the conversion of the ALA to the DHA is very minimal (<2%) in mammals. Our recent studies have shown that the conversion of the ALA to the DHA can be enhanced significantly when given in the microemulsion forms. This work was undertaken to study the feasibility of enriching the synaptic membranes of rat brain with the DHA by providing the microemulsions of linseed oil (LSO) containing ALA. The rats were fed LSO as microemulsions in whey protein or in lipoid for 60 days through gavage. The rats given LSO microemulsions in lipoid showed higher levels of the DHA in the brain synaptic membrane when compared to rats given LSO without emulsion formation. This decreased the n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio of the brain synaptic membrane. This also increased the membrane fluidity, Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase activity, and acetylcholine esterase activity in the synaptic membranes. Furthermore, Ca²âº-Mg²âº ATPase activity, monoamine oxidase A and monoamine oxidase B activity was lowered in the rats given LSO in the microemulsion form. The dopamine and the serotonin levels in the brain were increased in the rats given LSO in the microemulsion form with lipoid as compared to those given LSO without the preemulsion formation. This study indicates that the LSO microemulsions in the lipoid can enhance the synaptic membrane DHA levels and influence the functions associated with the brain in a beneficial manner.

Hypocholesterolemic effects of low calorie structured lipids on rats and rabbits fed on normal and atherogenic diet.

The hypocholesterolemic effects of two low calorie structured lipids (SL1 and SL2) containing essential fatty acids, prepared by lipase catalysed interesterification of ethyl behenate respectively with sunflower and soybean oils were studied in rats and rabbits. The feeding experiment conducted on rats as well as rabbits, fed on normal and atherogenic diet containing 10% of SL1 and SL2 (experimental) and sunflower oil (control) indicated no adverse effects on growth and food intake. However, the structured lipids beneficially lowered serum and liver lipids, particularly cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides and also maintains the essential fatty acid status in serum and liver. The lipid deposition observed in the arteries of rabbits fed on atherogenic diets was significantly reduced when structured lipids were included in the diet. These observations coincided with reduced levels of serum cholesterol particularly LDL cholesterol observed in experimental groups. Therefore the structured lipids, designed to have low calorific value also beneficially lower serum lipids and lipid deposition in animals fed on atherogenic diets.