Iron Supplementation during Pregnancy and Infancy: Uncertainties and Implications for Research and Policy.

Iron is particularly important in pregnancy and infancy to meet the high demands for hematopoiesis, growth and development. Much attention has been given to conditions of iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficient anemia (IDA) because of the high global prevalence estimated in these vulnerable life stages. Emerging and preliminary evidence demonstrates, however, a U-shaped risk at both low and high iron status for birth and infant adverse health outcomes including growth, preterm birth, gestational diabetes, gastrointestinal health, and neurodegenerative diseases during aging. Such evidence raises questions about the effects of high iron intakes through supplementation or food fortification during pregnancy and infancy in iron-replete individuals. This review examines the emerging as well as the current understanding of iron needs and homeostasis during pregnancy and infancy, uncertainties in ascertaining iron status in these populations, and issues surrounding U-shaped risk curves in iron-replete pregnant women and infants. Implications for research and policy are discussed relative to screening and supplementation in these vulnerable populations, especially in developed countries in which the majority of these populations are likely iron-replete.

Vitamin D: Moving Forward to Address Emerging Science.

The science surrounding vitamin D presents both challenges and opportunities. Although many uncertainties are associated with the understandings concerning vitamin D, including its physiological function, the effects of excessive intake, and its role in health, it is at the same time a major interest in the research and health communities. The approach to evaluating and interpreting the available evidence about vitamin D should be founded on the quality of the data and on the conclusions that take into account the totality of the evidence. In addition, these activities can be used to identify critical data gaps and to help structure future research. The Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health has as part of its mission the goal of supporting research and dialogues for topics with uncertain data, including vitamin D. This review considers vitamin D in the context of systematically addressing the uncertainty and in identifying research needs through the filter of the work of ODS. The focus includes the role of systematic reviews, activities that encompass considerations of the totality of the evidence, and collaborative activities to clarify unknowns or to fix methodological problems, as well as a case study using the relationship between cancer and vitamin D.

Iron status in pregnant women and women of reproductive age in Europe.

Understanding the iron status in pregnant women in Europe provides a foundation for considering the role of iron screening and supplementation. However, available reports and studies have used different approaches that challenge the devising of overall summaries. Moreover, data on pregnant women are limited, and thus, data on women of reproductive age provide useful background information including baseline iron stores in pregnant women. This review considered data that are available from >15 European countries including national surveys and relevant clinical studies. In European women of reproductive age, median or geometric mean serum ferritin (SF) concentrations were estimated at 26-38 µg/L. Approximately 40-55% of this population had small or depleted iron stores (i.e., SF concentration ≤30 µg/L), and 45-60% of this population had apparently replete iron stores. The prevalence of iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) was 10-32% and 2-5%, respectively, depending on the cutoffs used. Approximately 20-35% of European women of reproductive age had sufficient iron stores (SF concentration >70 µg/L) to complete a pregnancy without supplementary iron. During pregnancy, European women in controlled supplementation trials who were not receiving iron supplements displayed increasing prevalences of ID and IDA during pregnancy, which peaked in the middle to late third trimester. Available evidence has suggested that, in gestational weeks 32-39, the median or geometric mean SF concentrations were 6-21 µg/L, and prevalences of ID and IDA were 28-85% and 21-35%, respectively. Women who were taking iron supplements had higher iron status and lower prevalences of ID and IDA, which were dependent on the dose of iron and compliance. The data suggest that, in Europe, the iron status of reproductive-aged women varies by region and worsens in pregnancy without iron supplementation.

Introduction to workshop on iron screening and supplementation in iron-replete pregnant women and young children.

The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements convened a public workshop on iron screening and supplementation in iron-replete pregnant women and young children in 2016 in Bethesda, Maryland. The starting point for the workshop was the recent reports from the US Preventive Services Task Force concluding that there was insufficient evidence to evaluate the benefits and harms associated with iron screening and routine supplementation among asymptomatic pregnant women and young children (6-24 mo old) in the United States. The goal of the workshop was to explore and refine understanding about the existing knowledge gaps and research needs associated with these preventive services for these groups. Given the focus on the United States, planning for the workshop took into account the higher iron status in the United States compared with developing countries and, in turn, included a focus on iron-replete individuals consistent with the U-shaped risk curve for nutrient-health relations. Topic areas included adaptations in iron homeostasis associated with pregnancy and young childhood, the impact of inflammation, measurement of iron status, current estimates of iron status for pregnant women and young children in the United States and in Europe, and emerging evidence suggesting adverse effects associated with iron supplementation of iron-replete individuals. A crosscutting dialogue conducted at the close of the workshop formed the basis for a workshop summary that specified evidence gaps and research needs in a range of areas centered on the relation of these adaptations of iron homeostasis with the response to and risk from iron supplementation as well as the need for indicators informative of the full continuum of iron status and based on health outcomes, not just erythropoiesis.

Integrating themes, evidence gaps, and research needs identified by workshop on iron screening and supplementation in iron-replete pregnant women and young children.

This report addresses the evidence and the uncertainties, knowledge gaps, and research needs identified by participants at the NIH workshop related to iron screening and routine iron supplementation of largely iron-replete pregnant women and young children (6-24 mo) in developed countries. The workshop presentations and panel discussions focused on current understanding and knowledge gaps related to iron homeostasis, measurement of and evidence for iron status, and emerging concerns about supplementing iron-replete members of these vulnerable populations. Four integrating themes emerged across workshop presentations and discussion and centered on 1) physiologic or developmental adaptations of iron homeostasis to pregnancy and early infancy, respectively, and their implications, 2) improvement of the assessment of iron status across the full continuum from iron deficiency anemia to iron deficiency to iron replete to iron excess, 3) the linkage of iron status with health outcomes beyond hematologic outcomes, and 4) the balance of benefit and harm of iron supplementation of iron-replete pregnant women and young children. Research that addresses these themes in the context of the full continuum of iron status is needed to inform approaches to the balancing of benefits and harms of screening and routine supplementation.

Correspondence of folate dietary intake and biomarker data.

Background: Public health concerns with regard to both low and high folate status exist in the United States. Recent publications have questioned the utility of self-reported dietary intake data in research and monitoring.Objectives: The purpose of this analysis was to examine the relation between self-reported folate intakes and folate status biomarkers and to evaluate their usefulness for several types of applications.Design: We examined usual dietary intakes of folate by using the National Cancer Institute method to adjust two 24-h dietary recalls (including dietary supplements) for within-person variation and then compared these intakes with serum and red blood cell (RBC) folate among 4878 men and nonpregnant, nonlactating women aged ≥19 y in NHANES 2011-2012, a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey, with respect to consistency across prevalence estimates and rank order comparisons.Results: There was a very low prevalence (<1%) of folate deficiency when serum (<7 nmol/L) and RBC (<305 nmol/L) folate were considered, whereas a higher proportion of the population reported inadequate total dietary folate intakes (6%). Similar patterns of change occurred between intakes and biomarkers of folate status when distributions were examined (i.e., dose response), particularly when diet was expressed in µg. Intakes greater than the Tolerable Upper Intake Level greatly increased the odds of having high serum folate (OR: 17.6; 95% CI: 5.5, 56.0).Conclusions: When assessing folate status in the United States, where fortification and supplement use are common, similar patterns in the distributions of diet and biomarkers suggest that these 2 types of status indicators reflect the same underlying folate status; however, the higher prevalence estimates for inadequate intakes compared with biomarkers suggest, among other factors, a systematic underestimation bias in intake data. Caution is needed in the use of dietary folate data to estimate the prevalence of inadequacy among population groups. The use of dietary data for rank order comparisons or to estimate the potential for dietary excess is likely more reliable.

Topical anaesthesia for needle-related pain in newborn infants.

BACKGROUND: Hospitalised newborn neonates frequently undergo painful invasive procedures that involve penetration of the skin and other tissues by a needle. One intervention that can be used prior to a needle insertion procedure is application of a topical local anaesthetic. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of topical anaesthetics such as amethocaine and EMLA in newborn term or preterm infants requiring an invasive procedure involving puncture of skin and other tissues with a needle. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), PubMed, Embase and CINAHL up to 15 May 2016; previous reviews including cross-references, abstracts, and conference proceedings. We contacted expert informants. We contacted authors directly to obtain additional data. We imposed no language restrictions. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised, quasi-randomised controlled trials, and cluster and cross-over randomised trials that compared the topical anaesthetics amethocaine and eutectic mixture of local anaesthetics (EMLA) in terms of anaesthetic efficacy and safety in newborn term or preterm infants requiring an invasive procedure involving puncture of skin and other tissues with a needle DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: From the reports of the clinical trials we extracted data regarding clinical outcomes including pain, number of infants with methaemoglobin level 5% and above, number of needle prick attempts prior to successful needle-related procedure, crying, time taken to complete the procedure, episodes of apnoea, episodes of bradycardia, episodes of oxygen desaturation, neurodevelopmental disability and other adverse events. MAIN RESULTS: Eight small randomised controlled trials met the inclusion criteria (n = 506). These studies compared either EMLA and placebo or amethocaine and placebo. No studies compared EMLA and amethocaine. We were unable to meta-analyse the outcome of pain due to differing outcome measures and methods of reporting. For EMLA, two individual studies reported a statistically significant reduction in pain compared to placebo during lumbar puncture and venepuncture. Three studies found no statistical difference between the groups during heel lancing. For amethocaine, three studies reported a statistically significant reduction in pain compared to placebo during venepuncture and one study reported a statistically significant reduction in pain compared to placebo during cannulation. One study reported no statistical difference between the two groups during intramuscular injection.One study reported no statistical difference between EMLA and the placebo group for successful venepuncture at first attempt. One study similarly reported no statistically significant difference between Amethocaine and the placebo group for successful cannulation at first attempt.Risk for local redness, swelling or blanching was significantly higher with EMLA (typical risk ratio (RR) 1.65, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.24 to 2.19; typical risk difference (RD) 0.17, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.26; n = 272; number needed to treat for an additional harmful outcome (NNTH) 6, 95% CI 4 to 11; I2 = 92% indicating considerable heterogeneity) although not for amethocaine (typical RR 2.11, 95% CI 0.72 to 6.16; typical RD 0.05, 95% CI -0.02 to 0.11, n = 221). These local skin reactions for EMLA and amethocaine were reported as short-lasting. Two studies reported no methaemoglobinaemia with single application of EMLA. The quality of the evidence on outcomes assessed according to GRADE was low to moderate. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Overall, all the trials were small, and the effects of uncertain clinical significance. The evidence regarding the effectiveness or safety of the interventions studied is inadequate to support clinical recommendations. There has been no evaluation regarding any long-term effects of topical anaesthetics in newborn infants.High quality studies evaluating the efficacy and safety of topical anaesthetics such as amethocaine and EMLA for needle-related pain in newborn term or preterm infants are required. These studies should aim to determine efficacy of these topical anaesthetics and on homogenous groups of infants for gestational age. While there was no methaemoglobinaemia in the studies that reported methaemoglobin, the efficacy and safety of EMLA, especially in very preterm infants, and for repeated application, need to be further evaluated in future studies.

National Estimates of Serum Total 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Metabolite Concentrations Measured by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry in the US Population during 2007-2010.

BACKGROUND: The 2007-2010 NHANES provides the first US nationally representative serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations measured by standardized liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. OBJECTIVE: We describe patterns for total 25(OH)D and individual metabolites in persons aged ≥1 y stratified by race-ethnicity and grouped by demographic, intake, physiologic, and lifestyle variables. METHODS: We measured 25-hydroxycholecalciferol [25(OH)D3], 25-hydroxyergocalciferol [25(OH)D2], and C3-epimer of 25(OH)D3 [C3-epi-25(OH)D3] in serum samples (n = 15,652) from the 2007-2010 cross-sectional NHANES [total 25(OH)D = 25(OH)D3 + 25(OH)D2]. RESULTS: Concentrations (median, detection rate) of 25(OH)D3 (63.6 nmol/L, 100%) and C3-epi-25(OH)D3 (3.40 nmol/L, 86%) were generally detectable; 25(OH)D2 was detectable in 19% of the population. Total 25(OH)D, 25(OH)D3, and C3-epi-25(OH)D3 displayed similar demographic patterns and were strongly correlated (Spearman's r > 0.70). Concentrations of 25(OH)D2 (90th percentile) were much higher in persons aged ≥60 y (17.3 nmol/L) than in younger age groups (≤4.88 nmol/L). We noted significant race-ethnicity differences in mean total 25(OH)D [non-Hispanic blacks (NHBs), Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites (NHWs): 46.6, 57.2, and 75.2 nmol/L, respectively] and in the prevalence of total 25(OH)D <30 nmol/L overall (24% of NHBs, 6.4% of Hispanics, and 2.3% of NHWs) as well as stratified by season (winter months: 30% of NHBs, 7.5% of Hispanics, and 3.8% of NHWs; summer months: 17% of NHBs, 4.4% of Hispanics, and 1.6% of NHWs). Persons with higher vitamin D intakes (diet, supplements, or both) and those examined during May-October had significantly higher total 25(OH)D. Significant race-ethnicity interactions in a multiple linear regression model confirmed the necessity of providing race-ethnicity-specific estimates of total 25(OH)D. CONCLUSIONS: Race-ethnicity differences in the prevalence of low total 25(OH)D remained strong even after adjustment for season to account for the NHANES design imbalance between season, latitude, and race-ethnicity. The strong correlation between C3-epi-25(OH)D3 and 25(OH)D3 may be because the epimer is a metabolite of 25(OH)D3. The presence of 25(OH)D2 mainly in older persons is likely a result of high-dose prescription vitamin D2.

Interlaboratory Trial for Measurement of Vitamin D and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] in Foods and a Dietary Supplement Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

Assessment of total vitamin D intake from foods and dietary supplements (DSs) may be incomplete if 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] intake is not included. However, 25(OH)D data for such intake assessments are lacking, no food or DS reference materials (RMs) are available, and comparison of laboratory performance has been needed. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate whether vitamin D3 and 25(OH)D3 concentrations in food and DS materials could be measured with acceptable reproducibility. Five experienced laboratories from the United States and other countries participated, all using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry but no common analytical protocol; however, various methods were used for determining vitamin D3 in the DS. Five animal-based materials (including three commercially available RMs) and one DS were analyzed. Reproducibility results for the materials were acceptable. Thus, it is possible to obtain consistent results among experienced laboratories for vitamin D3 and 25(OH)D3 in foods and a DS.

Questions About Vitamin D for Primary Care Practice: Input From an NIH Conference.

There is considerable consumer and physician interest in vitamin D as a possible therapeutic agent for a range of clinical conditions and, despite mixed evidence, the interest does not appear to lessen. Some clinicians believe that consumption of vitamin D is inadequate and, in turn, advocate vitamin D supplementation to increase serum levels of the nutrient. However, evidence concerning the role of vitamin D in health and disease is conflicting, and primary care physicians have little time to sort through the data and may find it difficult to advise their patients. To better understand the challenges that primary care physicians face regarding vitamin D, and to help inform those who provide guidance for clinical decision-making, the Office of Dietary Supplements at the National Institutes of Health, with co-sponsorship from other federal health agencies, held a conference titled Vitamin D: Moving Toward Evidence-based Decision Making in Primary Care in December 2014. More than 20 invited presenters and panelists considered laboratory methods for measuring vitamin D status, discussed how clinical studies of vitamin D should be evaluated and used in developing recommendations, noted the role of values and preferences in clinical decision-making, debated the current science related to at-risk groups, and described emerging data about health risks of excessive intakes of vitamin D. Eight questions about vitamin D stem from the Conference presentations as well as other expert sources.

Use of Folate-Based and Other Fortification Scenarios Illustrates Different Shifts for Tails of the Distribution of Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of food fortification is to affect those at the lower end of the distribution curve for nutrient status while avoiding unintended consequences for those at the high end of the distribution. Vitamin D presents challenges in this regard. OBJECTIVES: We used scenarios to model changes in concentrations of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] based on increases made because of assumptions about fortification. We then examined the outcomes for balance between improving serum 25(OH)D status for those at risk of inadequacy while avoiding high concentrations for those not at risk. METHODS: Data from NHANES 2001-2006 served as baseline serum 25(OH)D concentrations and were used to model shifts in serum 25(OH)D distribution after application of 3 fortification scenarios, including conceptual scenarios and an experiential predictive scenario we developed with the use of statistical modeling of changes in NHANES serum folate concentrations between prefortification and postfortification time periods. RESULTS: All scenarios suggested the possibility of increasing serum 25(OH)D above 125 nmol/L among the proportion of the population at the high end of baseline serum 25(OH)D distribution. The scenario based on serum folate change struck a middle ground between the 2 conceptual scenarios. It predicted a prevalence of 11% <40 nmol/L serum 25(OH)D compared with 17% currently (study baseline), and 8% prevalence of serum 25(OH)D >125 nmol/L compared with <1% currently (study baseline). It also confirmed that fortification affects those at the low end of the status distribution curve differently from those at the high end. CONCLUSIONS: Nutrient inadequacy of the type demonstrated by vitamin D--in which the risk is not universal--requires a thorough exploration of the unintended consequences of the overall shift in the distribution of serum 25(OH)D if efforts are made to use fortification to increase the status of persons at risk of deficiency. Fortification is at best a blunt instrument that must be implemented with caution. Moreover, fortification must be preceded by more research to elucidate the dose-response relation between intake and changes in serum 25(OH)D.

Fortification and health: challenges and opportunities.

Fortification is the process of adding nutrients or non-nutrient bioactive components to edible products (e.g., food, food constituents, or supplements). Fortification can be used to correct or prevent widespread nutrient intake shortfalls and associated deficiencies, to balance the total nutrient profile of a diet, to restore nutrients lost in processing, or to appeal to consumers looking to supplement their diet. Food fortification could be considered as a public health strategy to enhance nutrient intakes of a population. Over the past century, fortification has been effective at reducing the risk of nutrient deficiency diseases such as beriberi, goiter, pellagra, and rickets. However, the world today is very different from when fortification emerged in the 1920s. Although early fortification programs were designed to eliminate deficiency diseases, current fortification programs are based on low dietary intakes rather than a diagnosable condition. Moving forward, we must be diligent in our approach to achieving effective and responsible fortification practices and policies, including responsible marketing of fortified products. Fortification must be applied prudently, its effects monitored diligently, and the public informed effectively about its benefits through consumer education efforts. Clear lines of authority for establishing fortification guidelines should be developed and should take into account changing population demographics, changes in the food supply, and advances in technology. This article is a summary of a symposium presented at the ASN Scientific Sessions and Annual Meeting at Experimental Biology 2014 on current issues involving fortification focusing primarily on the United States and Canada and recommendations for the development of responsible fortification practices to ensure their safety and effectiveness.

Including food 25-hydroxyvitamin D in intake estimates may reduce the discrepancy between dietary and serum measures of vitamin D status.

The discrepancy between the commonly used vitamin D status measures-intake and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations--has been perplexing. Sun exposure increases serum 25(OH)D concentrations and is often used as an explanation for the higher population-based serum concentrations in the face of apparently low vitamin D intake. However, sun exposure may not be the total explanation. 25(OH)D, a metabolite of vitamin D, is known to be present in animal-based foods. It has been measured and reported only sporadically and is not currently factored into U.S. estimates of vitamin D intake. Previously unavailable preliminary USDA data specifying the 25(OH)D content of a subset of foods allowed exploration of the potential change in the reported overall vitamin D content of foods when the presence of 25(OH)D was included. The issue of 25(OH)D potency was addressed, and available commodity intake estimates were used to outline trends in projected vitamin D intake when 25(OH)D in foods was taken into account. Given the data available, there were notable increases in the total vitamin D content of a number of animal-based foods when potency-adjusted 25(OH)D was included, and in turn there was a potentially meaningful increase (1.7-2.9 µg or 15-30% of average requirement) in vitamin D intake estimates. The apparent increase could reduce discrepancies between intake estimates and serum 25(OH)D concentrations. The relevance to dietary interventions is discussed, and the need for continued exploration regarding 25(OH)D measurement is highlighted.

Common misconceptions about vitamin D--implications for clinicians.

Misconceptions about vitamin D continue to grow despite publications in the past few years that have attempted to clarify risk. We present our perspective, and offer several conclusions. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation can reduce fracture risk by ∼10%. On the other hand, little evidence exists to support a threshold measure for vitamin D status (serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D) above which fractures are reduced. The association of serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with other chronic diseases is confounded by multiple factors and conflicting outcomes that cannot be used to support a causal association. High doses of vitamin D supplements might not be completely harmless and should be avoided until additional data becomes available. Similarly, scant rationale exists for aggressive vitamin D supplementation for pregnant or lactating women. Dispelling misconceptions about vitamin D will ultimately benefit health-care providers and patients alike.

Summary of workshop discussions on establishing upper limits for amino acids with specific attention to available data for the essential amino acids leucine and tryptophan.

The morning of the first day of the 8th Amino Acid Assessment Workshop was organized and co-sponsored by the International Council on Amino Acid Science (ICAAS) and the International Life Sciences Institute Research Foundation and was focused on the International Life Sciences Institute Research Foundation's approach to establishing upper limits of nutrients. The remainder of d 1 and all of d 2 were focused on the safety of leucine and tryptophan, with special emphasis on determining the upper level of the safe range of intake. It was recognized that some toxicological frameworks, mainly the key-events dose response framework, might be applicable to amino acids and provide appropriate assistance to regulators in establishing upper limits for amino acids as a group of nutrients used in dietary supplements. ICAAS-funded projects for determining the upper intake limits for the essential amino acid leucine provided the main pool of leucine data discussed at the workshop. The acute clinical study suggests 500 mg/(kg · d) as a possible upper limit for leucine in healthy humans, but the safety margin needed to widen this limit to the general population has not been determined. For tryptophan, the workshop participants found less ground for consensus. Older efficacy studies suggested that tryptophan at 8-15 g/d was well tolerated, but human research was abruptly terminated in the late 1980s and no new data are available. Animal results obtained in pigs and rodents were discussed and 2 possible strategies for applying those outcomes to humans were described.

High throughput ADME screening: practical considerations, impact on the portfolio and enabler of in silico ADME models.

Evaluation and optimization of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic data plays an important role in drug discovery and development and several reliable in vitro ADME models are available. Recently higher throughput in vitro ADME screening facilities have been established in order to be able to evaluate an appreciable fraction of synthesized compounds. The ADME screening process can be dissected in five distinct steps: (1) plate management of compounds in need of in vitro ADME data, (2) optimization of the MS/MS method for the compounds, (3) in vitro ADME experiments and sample clean up, (4) collection and reduction of the raw LC-MS/MS data and (5) archival of the processed ADME data. All steps will be described in detail and the value of the data on drug discovery projects will be discussed as well. Finally, in vitro ADME screening can generate large quantities of data obtained under identical conditions to allow building of reliable in silico models.

Nutrient risk assessment as a tool for providing scientific assessments to regulators.

Regulatory officials world-wide are paying attention to the process for establishing the upper level of intake for nutrient substances. The rapidly expanding use of dietary supplements, fortified foods, and functional foods, coupled with increased trade in these products, has focused attention on ensuring their safety and on harmonizing standards internationally. The more traditional approaches, in which the regulators either provided no standards for upper levels of intake or developed standards based on some arbitrary multiple of the intake level known to provide an adequate amount of the nutrient, are recognized as outdated or inappropriate for the emerging issues. Preferred approaches are those that rely on the systematic scientific assessment of risk to determine the levels of intake below which no harm may occur. The scientific study of risk is playing an increased role in establishing the regulatory upper levels of "safe" nutrient intake. Risk assessment, as a component of risk analysis, offers a scientific basis for regulatory decision-making regarding the regulators' task associated with specifying safe upper levels of intake for nutrient substances. This article describes the key components of risk assessment as they are applied within the nutrition field. Although regulatory frameworks vary from country to country and all countries retain their right to determine their own level of protection, regulatory systems operate most effectively and are more likely to converge toward harmonization if they are informed by independent, organized, and scientific reviews that are conducted systematically in a transparent manner.