Anti-inflammatory potential of stevia residue extract against uric acid-associated renal injury in mice.

Abnormal uric acid level result in the development of hyperuricemia and hallmark of various diseases, including renal injury, gout, cardiovascular disorders, and non-alcoholic fatty liver. This study was designed to explore the anti-inflammatory potential of stevia residue extract (STR) against hyperuricemia-associated renal injury in mice. The results revealed that STR at dosages of 150 and 300 mg/kg bw and allopurinol markedly modulated serum uric acid, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine in hyperuricemic mice. Serum and renal cytokine levels (IL-18, IL-6, IL-1Β, and TNF-α) were also restored by STR treatments. Furthermore, mRNA and immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis revealed that STR ameliorates UA (uric acid)-associated renal inflammation, fibrosis, and EMT (epithelial-mesenchymal transition) via MMPS (matrix metalloproteinases), inhibiting NF-κB/NLRP3 activation by the AMPK/SIRT1 pathway and modulating the JAK2-STAT3 and Nrf2 signaling pathways. In summary, the present study provided experimental evidence that STR is an ideal candidate for the treatment of hyperuricemia-mediated renal inflammation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The higher uric acid results in hyperuricemia and gout. The available options for the treatment of hyperuricemia and gout are the use of allopurinol, and colchicine drugs, etc. These drugs possess several undesirable side effect. The polyphenolic compounds are abundantly present in plants, for example, stevia residue extract (STR) exert a positive effect on human health. From this study results, we can recommend that polyphenolic compounds enrich STR could be applied to develop treatment options for the treatment of hyperuricemia and gout.

Recent trends in the micro-encapsulation of plant-derived compounds and their specific application in meat as antioxidants and antimicrobials.

The controversy around synthetic antioxidants and antimicrobials, which have been linked to major health problems, has driven both consumers and producers toward the usage of natural preservatives. Plants are excellent sources of bioactive compounds that can be used as part of raw materials during meat processing. Therefore, exploitation of plant-derived antioxidants is necessary to protect against microbial growth and to extend the self-life of meat. However, certain limitations, such as a strong organoleptic effect owing to the bitterness and acerbic taste, instability, and short shelf life of some plant bioactive compounds, limit their use in the meat system. Encapsulation is a novel and promising technique for overcoming these limitations. It protects bioactive compounds by strengthening their oxidative stability and by controlling the release of targeted compounds. Indeed, this review article provides recent advancements in the encapsulation of plant-derived compounds and their specific application in meat preservation.

Protective Mechanism of Edible Food Plants against Alcoholic Liver Disease with Special Mention to Polyphenolic Compounds.

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is one type of liver disease, causing a global healthcare problem and mortality. The liver undergoes tissue damage by chronic alcohol consumption because it is the main site for metabolism of ethanol. Chronic alcohol exposure progresses from alcoholic fatty liver (AFL) to alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH), which further lead to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular cancer. Therapeutic interventions to combat ALD are very limited such as use of corticosteroids. However, these therapeutic drugs are not effective for long-term usage. Therefore, additional effective and safe therapies to cope with ALD are urgently needed. Previous studies confirmed that edible food plants and their bioactive compounds exert a protective effect against ALD. In this review article, we summarized the hepatoprotective potential of edible food plants and their bioactive compounds. The underlying mechanism for the prevention of ALD by edible food plants was as follows: anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, lipid regulation, inhibition of apoptosis, gut microbiota composition modulation, and anti-fibrosis.

Glochidion ellipticum Wight extracts ameliorate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice by modulating nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells signalling pathway.

OBJECTIVES: Glochidion ellipticum Wight is a medicinal plant, rich in polyphenols, frequently used by the indigenous communities of Bangladesh and possess with multiple health benefits. It exerts anti-inflammatory and antidiarrheal properties, but the detailed chemical constituents are yet to be elucidated. METHODS: Glochidion ellipticum extracts were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and then tested by both lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced inflammation of Raw 264.7 macrophage cells and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced acute colitis model. Blood serum was taken for fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) measurement and tissue samples were used to perform histology, RT-PCR and Western blotting. KEY FINDINGS: The extracts could lower the levels of nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and pro-inflammatory cytokines significantly in LPS induced macrophage cells. The extracts could also reduce disease activity index (DAI) score, restore antioxidants and pro-oxidants and improve macroscopic and microscopic features of colonic tissues in DSS induced mice. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in protein level was markedly diminished (up to 51.21% and 71.11%, respectively) in the treatment groups compared to the model group of colitic mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggested that G. ellipticum extracts ameliorate DSS colitis via blocking nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) signaling pathway, which make them to be potential candidates for further research against inflammation and colitis.

Essential Oil and Juice from Bergamot and Sweet Orange Improve Acne Vulgaris Caused by Excessive Androgen Secretion.

Acne vulgaris is one of the most common chronic inflammatory skin diseases. Bergamot and sweet orange are rich in nutritional and functional components, which exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effect. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential effect of bergamot and sweet orange (juice and essential oil) on acne vulgaris caused by excessive secretion of androgen. Eighty male golden hamsters were randomly divided into 10 groups and received low or high dose of bergamot and sweet orange juice and essential oil, physiological saline, and positive drugs for four weeks, respectively. Results showed that all interventions could improve acne vulgaris by reducing the growth rate of sebaceous gland spots, inhibiting TG accumulation, decreasing the release of inflammatory cytokines (notably reducing IL-1α levels), promoting apoptosis in the sebaceous gland, and decreasing the ratio of T/E2. Among them, bergamot and orange essential oil may have better effects (dose dependent) on alleviating acne vulgaris than the corresponding juice. In view of the large population of acne patients and the widespread use of sweet orange and bergamot, this study is likely to exert an extensive and far-reaching influence.

Anti-hyperuricemic potential of stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni) residue extract in hyperuricemic mice.

Hyperuricemia (HUA) is considered a potent risk factor for the development of gout, renal failure, and cardiovascular disease. The current project was designed to use stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni) byproduct, named stevia residue extract (STVRE), for the treatment of HUA. Male Kunming mice were divided into six groups: normal control, model control, positive control (allopurinol, 5 mg per kg body weight [bw]), STVRE-1 (75 mg per kg bw), STVRE-2 (150 mg per kg bw), and STVRE-3 (300 mg per kg bw). HUA was induced by the administration of potassium oxonate (100 mg per kg bw), fructose (10% w/v), and yeast extract (100 mg per kg bw) for 8 weeks. STVRE significantly (p < 0.05) decreased uric acid (UA) production and ameliorated UA excretion by interacting with urate transporters. The STVRE remarkably attenuated oxidative stress mediated by UA and downregulated inflammatory-related response markers such as COX-2, NF-κB, PGE2, IL-1ß, and TNF-α. Furthermore, STVRE also reversed HUA-induced abnormalities in kidneys compared with the MC group. The results of our study suggest that STVRE has potential to attenuate hyperuricemia and renal protective effects, and may be used as a natural supplement for the possible treatment of UA-related disorders.

Nutraceutical perspectives and value addition of phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.): A review.

Phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.) is a food plant originating from Southeast Asia, and is cultivated primarily for its fruit. Phalsa fruit is consumed raw or used as a drink or food additive. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo studies have found that extracts from various parts of phalsa plants (especially the fruit) possess strong antioxidant, radioprotective, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and cardio-protective properties. However, despite the identification of numerous nutritional and health benefits of phalsa, research into nutraceutical applications of the plant are somewhat limited. Therefore, the objective of this review was to explore the pharmacological, nutritional, phytochemical, and other potential uses of the phalsa plant. Recommendations for food scientists, nutritionists, and members of other allied disciplines are provided to help direct future research into the production, value addition, preservation, and phytochemical characterization of phalsa. Moreover, its potential health benefits are highlighted, along with the underlying mechanisms of action. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The aim of the present review is to explore functional aspects of phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.) bioactive compounds, their role in improving health, as well as their possible application as a functional food ingredient.

In vitro and in silico Xanthine Oxidase Inhibitory Activity of Selected Phytochemicals Widely Present in Various Edible Plants.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE: The present study was designed to evaluate the xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitory and antioxidant activities of 30 bioactive compounds present in edible food plants for the possible treatment of hyperuricemia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The XO inhibitory, SO and DPPH radical scavenging activities of selected dietary polyphenols were determined by using colorimetric assays. The molecular docking analysis was performed to evaluate the insight into inhibitory mode of action of bioactive compounds against XO. RESULTS: The results show that apigenin, galangin, kaempferol, quercetin, genistein and resveratrol potently inhibit XO enzyme among all tested compounds. Flavonoids exhibit higher, anthocyanins and hydroxycinnamic acids moderate, maslinic acid, ellagic acid, salicylic acid, [6]-gingerol and flavan-3-ols showed weak XO inhibitory activity. The results of molecular docking study revealed that these bioactive compounds bind with the active site of XO and occupy the active site which further prevents the entrance of substrate and results in the inhibition of XO. CONCLUSION: Inhibition of XO gives a robust biochemical basis for management of hyperuricemia, gout and other associated diseases via controlling uric acid synthesis.

Stevia residue extract alone and combination with allopurinol attenuate hyperuricemia in fructose-PO-induced hyperuricemic mice.

The current project was designed to utilize flavonoids and chlorogenic acids enriched stevia residue extract (STVRE) against hyperuricemia (HU). The in vitro results showed that STVRE potently and synergistically inhibits Xanthine oxidase (XO) with allopurinol. The AFM results predicted that STVRE compounds bind with XO and alter its structure which further prevents the entrance of substrate with XO. These in vitro results were further confirmed in fructose-PO-induced hyperuricemic mice model. The results showed that supplementation of STVRE with allopurinol significantly attenuated HU, oxidative stress, and inflammation caused by UA via inhibiting the production of uric acid and lowering cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, prostaglandin E2, interleukin-6, and interleukin 1-beta levels in serum and renal tissues. Moreover, STVRE and allopurinol treatment attenuated, tubular dilation, infiltration of inflammatory cells, improved structure disorder of podocyte, and foot process fusion, and decreased glomerular basement membrane thickness. These findings suggested that STVRE can be used as an antihyperuricemic agent along with allopurinol. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The results of present study showed that STVRE has a beneficial effect against fructose-PO-induced hyperuricemia by decreasing uric acid level, xanthine oxidase activity, improving oxidative stress and inflammation. These findings suggested that by-product of stevia (STVRE) enriched with polyphenolic compounds can be used as a functional ingredient against hyperuricemia and related diseases.

How black tea pigment theaflavin dyes chicken eggs: Binding affinity study of theaflavin with ovalbumin.

Theaflavin (TF), which is the key pigment in black tea, is a health-promoting food component with beneficial effects on humans. However, the interactions by which these effects are transferred and exerted into protein-rich foods are unclear. Here, egg ovalbumin (OVA) was selected as a representative dietary protein to ascertain their binding mechanism. Steady-state, time-resolved fluorescence and isothermal titration calorimetric results showed that TF can interact well with OVA with an affinity magnitude of 104. The noncovalent binding was mainly driven by hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonds. Structural analysis displayed that the TF binding pocket significantly overlapped with one of the surrounding specific IgE-binding epitopes, thereby causing a subtle structural adjustment on the secondary conformation of OVA. The biological complexation model that was delineated here will help understand how black tea dyes egg white in tea egg products and for the development of protein-rich carriers in functional foods.

Metabolomics Analysis of the Effect of Glutamic Acid on Monacolin K Synthesis in Monascus purpureus.

Monacolin K is a secondary metabolite produced by Monascus with beneficial effects on health, including the ability to lower cholesterol. We previously showed that the yield of monacolin K was significantly improved when glutamic acid was added to the fermentation broth of Monascus purpureus M1. In this study, we analyzed M. purpureus in media with and without glutamic acid supplementation using a metabolomic profiling approach to identify key metabolites and metabolic pathway differences. A total of 817 differentially expressed metabolites were identified between the two fermentation broths on day 8 of fermentation. Pathway analysis of these metabolites using the KEGG database indicated overrepresentation of the citric acid cycle; biotin metabolism; and alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolic pathways. Six differentially expressed metabolites were found to be related to the citric acid cycle. The effect of citric acid as an exogenous additive on the synthesis of monacolin K was examined. These results provide technical support and a theoretical basis for further studies of the metabolic regulatory mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of monacolin K and medium optimization, as well as genetic engineering of Monascus M1 for efficient monacolin K production.

Stevia residue extract increases intestinal uric acid excretion via interactions with intestinal urate transporters in hyperuricemic mice.

Hyperuricemia (HUA) is a metabolic disorder that occurs due to the overproduction or under-excretion of uric acid (UA) and is directly linked to the development of many life-threatening diseases. There is a growing interest among many researchers regarding how to overcome the encumbrance of HUA because conventional drugs are associated with multiple side effects. Thus, the present project has been designed to utilize flavonoids and chlorogenic acid-enriched stevia residue extract (STVRE) to combat HUA. The results show that supplementation with STVRE (200 and 400 mg per kg bw) inhibits the XOD enzyme in serum, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum tissues. Moreover, UA levels in the STVRE groups were also significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in serum, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum tissues and juices. STVRE also improved the intestinal morphology and oxidative biomarkers in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum tissues. Protein and mRNA expressions of ABCG2 were upregulated, whereas GLUT9 was downregulated in the STVRE-treated groups as compared with the model control group. The supplementation of STVRE significantly attenuated hyperuricemia and oxidative stress, upregulated ABCG2 and downregulated GLUT9 (protein and mRNA) expression in hyperuricemic mice. The results of our study revealed that the by-product of stevia has the potential to combat hyperuricemia, and can be used as a functional ingredient in the development of nutraceutical products.

Fatty Acid Content, Flavor Compounds, and Sensory Quality of Pork Loin as Affected by Dietary Supplementation with l-arginine and Glutamic Acid.

To investigate the effect of functional amino acid on meat flavor and eating quality, 60 growing-finishing pigs (Duroc × Large White × Landrace) were dietarily supplemented with or without 1.0% l-arginine, glutamic acid, or l-arginine plus glutamic acid for 2 months. After animals were slaughtered, the muscle fatty acid profile, flavor compounds, and meat sensory quality were comparatively investigated. The results showed that dietary supplementation with arginine, glutamic acid, or arginine plus glutamic acid had little effect on free amino acids, no effect on 5'-nucleotides and meat sensory taste traits, but supplementation with arginine plus glutamic acid significantly increased (P < 0.05) fat accumulation and fatty acid content in muscle, increased (P < 0.05) the formation of multiple fatty acid oxidation-derived volatile compounds, and improved the tenderness, juiciness, and overall eating quality of meat. This study revealed that dietary supplementation with 1.0% l-arginine and glutamic acid could be used to improve meat eating quality in pork production.

Optimization of betacyanins from agricultural by-products using pressurized hot water extraction for antioxidant and in vitro oleic acid-induced steatohepatitis inhibitory activity.

Pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) is proposed to recover betacyanins from agricultural by-products (pitaya fruits peels (PFP), red beet stalks (RBS), and cactus pear peels (CPP)). The extraction yield of betacyanins was optimized by response surface methodology. The optimal PHWE conditions were attained and the actual yields of betacyanins under optimal conditions were well matched with the predicted yields. In addition, betacyanin pigment compositions as well as superoxide anion scavenging activity of individual betacyanins extract (BE) produced in optimal PHWE conditions were characterized by HPLC-ESI/MSn and cyclic voltammetry. Furthermore, the inhibitory activity of three BEs on oleic acid-induced steatohepatitis in cellular model was comparatively investigated. The results showed that unlike PFP, RBS, and CPP presented excellent efficacy in decreasing intracellular triglyceride and reactive oxygen species, inhibiting the release of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase as well as regulating fatty acid synthase and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 mRNAs expression. Practical applications In this study, PHWE, is firstly proposed for the enhancement of the extraction of betacyanins from three agricultural by-products. Betacyanin-rich extracts by PHWE method exhibit excellent activities in inhibition of ROS and regulation of lipid metabolism in hepatic cells. It suggests that PHWE has a strong potentiality in keeping bioactivity of BEs, which is significant for the production of betacyanins functional foods.

Effects of glutamic acid on the production of monacolin K in four high-yield monacolin K strains in Monascus.

Monascus purpureus is a traditional Chinese microbe that can be used as a medicinal herb and is edible. To improve the yield of monacolin K, we optimized the medium of M. purpureus with high-yield monacolin K strains. When high-yield strains C8, D8, E3, and I1 were grown in glutamic medium instead of the original medium, monacolin K production was increased. Among these strains, C8 exhibited the highest monacolin K production in glutamic acid medium, with levels increased 4.80-fold. RT-qPCR demonstrated that glutamic acid enhanced the expression of mokC and mokG. Observation of Monascus mycelium morphology using SEM showed that mycelia exhibited more folds, swelling, curves, and fractures. Thus, glutamic acid may promote the growth of the mycelium and appeared to increase the permeability of the cell membrane. This lays a foundation for research on the regulatory effect of glutamic acid and provides a theoretical basis for the industrialization and commercialization of Monascus.

Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on steroidogenesis and cellular development in PCOS rats.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder, which is characterized by hyperandrogenism. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are necessary for the body's metabolism, growth and development. Despite the well-known benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on the modulation of PCOS ovarian function, relatively little is known about the precise regulation mechanism. The objective of this study was to determine the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which omega-3 regulates CYP51 expression and steroid biosynthesis during follicle growth in PCOS. The results indicated that the CYP51 expression was up-regulated in granulosa cells by omega-3. Moreover, the knockdown of CYP51 blocked omega-3 induced estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) synthesis as well as cellular viability and proliferation. These changes were accompanied by the up-regulation of the p-Akt level. Furthermore, the PI3K/Akt pathway was required for the regulation of CYP51 expression, steroidogenesis and cell development by omega-3 in PCOS granulosa cells. Our data demonstrate that omega-3 potentiates the cellular development and steroid biosynthesis via CYP51 up-regulation in PCOS, which are mediated through the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Dietary wood pulp-derived sterols modulation of cholesterol metabolism and gut microbiota in high-fat-diet-fed hamsters.

Evidence indicates that wood pulp-derived sterols (WS) have beneficial effects on cardiovascular diseases. The present study aimed to (i) investigate the serum cholesterol-lowering activity of dietary WS and (ii) investigate the effects of dietary WS on the balance of gut microbiota in hamsters fed with a high-fat diet. Thirty-six hamsters were divided into four groups fed on a normal chow diet (NCD), a high-fat diet (HFD), or HFD plus 0.1% or 0.5% wood pulp-derived sterols (WSL, WSH), respectively, for 6 weeks. Levels of serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL-C, non-HDL-C, and non-HDL-C/HDL-C ratio in hamsters fed the NCD were originally 120.4 mg dL-1, 235.8 mg dL-1, 71.7 mg dL-1, 48.7 mg dL-1 and 0.68 mg dL-1, which were elevated by being fed the HFD to 187.7 mg dL-1, 389.5 mg dL-1, 92.3 mg dL-1, 95.3 mg dL-1 and 1.03 mg dL-1, and alleviated completely by being fed the WSH. The excretion of total fecal neutral sterols was dose-dependently increased with the amounts of dietary WS. Furthermore, dietary supplementation with WS modulated the relative abundance of gut microbiota compared with the HFD group. Spearman's correlation analysis revealed that Bacteroides, Allobaculum, Coprobacillus, Lactobacillus, Akkermansia, Coprococcus, and Oscillospira were correlated negatively with most of the serum metabolic parameters and cholesterol metabolic parameters, whereas Desulfovibrio was positively correlated with most of the lipid metabolism-associated parameters. Taken together, dietary supplementation with WS was found to have cholesterol-lowering activity, in part mediated by modulating the gut microbiota in a positive way and regulating the cholesterol absorption and metabolism-related genes.

Natural compounds with xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity: A review.

Hyperuricemia (HUA), a disease due to an elevation of body uric acid level and responsible for various diseases such as gout, cardiovascular disorders, and renal failure, is a major ground debate for the medical science these days. Considering the risk factors linked with allopathic drugs for the treatment of this disease, the debate has now become a special issue. Previously, we critically discussed the role of dietary polyphenols in the treatment of HUA. Besides dietary food plants, many researchers figure out the tremendous effects of medicinal plants-derived phytochemicals against HUA. Keeping in mind all these aspects, we reviewed all possible managerial studies related to HUA through medicinal plants (isolated compounds). In the current review article, we comprehensively discussed various bioactive compounds, chemical structures, and structure-activity relationship with responsible key enzyme xanthine oxidase.

Impact of ultrasound and conventional extraction techniques on bioactive compounds and biological activities of blue butterfly pea flower (Clitoria ternatea L.).

The present study was conducted to evaluate the influence of ultrasound on bioactive compounds and biological activities of blue butterfly pea flower (Clitoria ternatea L.). For this purpose, optimized conditions (temperature 50 °C, time 150 min, solid to liquid ratio 1 g:15 ml, 70% amplitude and 240 W, 20 kHz frequency, 3 s on and 3 s off) of ultrasound (US) and conventional extraction (AGE: Agitation, water bath for 150 min, 50 °C at 150 rmp) were used. The results showed significant (p < 0.05) effect of US and AGE on total phenolics (TPCs), flavonoids (TFCs) and antioxidant activities (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, reducing activity, Cu2+ and H2O2) of butterfly pea flower extract (BPFE). The results showed an increased trend in yield, TPCs, TFCs and antioxidant activities of US treated BPFE with comparison to AGE. However, insignificant (p > 0.05) effect of US and AGE over TFlaCs and PACs were observed. Moreover, the results of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) showed little changes in spectrum and US does not affect the functional group of bioactive compounds structure. Additionally, extracts (500-2000 µg/ml) protect pBR322 plasmid DNA damage induced by (1 mM H2O2 and 1 mM FeSO4), plasma oxidation (induced by 250 µM CuCl2) and inhibit erythrocyte hemolysis (induced by 200 mM AAPH, 34.6 to 66.73%). Sonication can be applied successfully for the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials with high biological activities.

Degradation of anthocyanins and polymeric color formation during heat treatment of purple sweet potato extract at different pH.

Purple sweet potato anthocyanins are common natural pigments widely used in food industry, while they are often thermally processed in application. Degradation of anthocyanins, formation of polymers and color changes of purple sweet potato extract (PSPE) were investigated at 90 °C in the range of pH 3.0-pH 7.0. Data analysis indicated a first-order reaction for anthocyanins degradation in solutions with pH 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0 have half-lives of 10.27, 12.42 and 4.66 h, respectively. The polymeric color formation followed zero-order kinetics, progressively increasing with pH values. The color of PSPE were changed with heating time and pH value through visual observation and colorimetric characterization. Analysis by UV-Vis spectrophotometry and HPLC indicated that anthocyanins in solution with pH 3.0 changed from monomeric anthocyanin into new polymers during heat treatment. Degradation of anthocyanins was accompanied by an increase in polymeric color index, due to the formation of melanoidin pigments and condensation reactions.