Difference in Striga-susceptibility is reflected in strigolactone secretion profile, but not in compatibility and host preference in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in two maize cultivars.

Strigolactones released from plant roots trigger both seed germination of parasitic weeds such as Striga spp. and hyphal branching of the symbionts arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Generally, strigolactone composition in exudates is quantitatively and qualitatively different among plants, which may be involved in susceptibility and host specificity in the parasite-plant interactions. We hypothesized that difference in strigolactone composition would have a significant impact on compatibility and host specificity/preference in AM symbiosis. Strigolactones in root exudates of Striga-susceptible (Pioneer 3253) and -resistant (KST 94) maize (Zea mays) cultivars were characterized by LC-MS/MS combined with germination assay using Striga hermonthica seeds. Levels of colonization and community compositions of AM fungi in the two cultivars were investigated in field and glasshouse experiments. 5-Deoxystrigol was exuded exclusively by the susceptible cultivar, while the resistant cultivar mainly exuded sorgomol. Despite the distinctive difference in strigolactone composition, the levels of AM colonization and the community compositions were not different between the cultivars. The present study demonstrated that the difference in strigolactone composition has no appreciable impact on AM symbiosis, at least in the two maize cultivars, and further suggests that the traits involved in Striga-resistance are not necessarily accompanied by reduction in compatibility to AM fungi.

Phytochemical profiles of black, red, brown, and white rice from the Camargue region of France.

Secondary metabolites in black, red, brown, and white rice grown in the Camargue region of France were investigated using HPLC-PDA-MS(2). The main compounds in black rice were anthocyanins (3.5 mg/g), with cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and peonidin 3-O-glucoside predominating, followed by flavones and flavonols (0.5 mg/g) and flavan-3-ols (0.3 mg/g), which comprised monomeric and oligomeric constituents. Significant quantities of γ-oryzanols, including 24-methylenecycloartenol, campesterol, cycloartenol, and ß-sitosterol ferulates, were also detected along with lower levels of carotenoids (6.5 µg/g). Red rice was characterized by a high amount of oligomeric procyanidins (0.2 mg/g), which accounted >60% of secondary metabolite content with carotenoids and γ-oryzanol comprising 26.7%, whereas flavones, flavonols and anthocyanins were <9%. Brown and white rice contained lower quantities of phytochemicals, in the form of flavones/flavonols (21-24 µg/g) and γ-oryzanol (12.3-8.2 µg/g), together with trace levels of the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin. Neither anthocyanins nor procyanidins were detected in brown and white rice. By describing the profile of the heterogeneous mixture of phytochemicals present in different rice varieties, this study provides a basis for defining the potential health effects related to pigmented and nonpigmented rice consumption by humans.

Phytochemical profile of a Japanese black-purple rice.

Black-purple rice is becoming popular with health conscious food consumers. In the present study, the secondary metabolites in dehulled black-purple rice cv. Asamurasaki were analysed using HPLC-PDA-MS(2). The seeds contained a high concentration of seven anthocyanins (1400 µg/g fresh weight) with cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside predominating. Five flavonol glycosides, principally quercetin-3-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, and flavones were detected at a total concentration of 189 µg/g. The seeds also contained 3.9 µg/g of carotenoids consisting of lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene and ß-carotene. γ-Oryzanol (279 µg/g) was also present as a mixture of 24-methylenecycloartenol ferulate, campesterol ferulate, cycloartenol ferulate and ß-sitosterol ferulate. No procyanidins were detected in this variety of black-purple rice. The results demonstrate that the black-purple rice in the dehulled form in which it is consumed by humans contains a rich heterogeneous mixture of phytochemicals which may provide a basis for the potential health benefits, and highlights the possible use of the rice as functional food.

How do nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies affect strigolactone production and exudation?

Plants exude strigolactones (SLs) to attract symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the rhizosphere. Previous studies have demonstrated that phosphorus (P) deficiency, but not nitrogen (N) deficiency, significantly promotes SL exudation in red clover, while in sorghum not only P deficiency but also N deficiency enhances SL exudation. There are differences between plant species in SL exudation under P- and N-deficient conditions, which may possibly be related to differences between legumes and non-legumes. To investigate this possibility in detail, the effects of N and P deficiencies on SL exudation were examined in Fabaceae (alfalfa and Chinese milk vetch), Asteraceae (marigold and lettuce), Solanaceae (tomato), and Poaceae (wheat) plants. In alfalfa as expected, and unexpectedly in tomato, only P deficiency promoted SL exudation. In contrast, in Chinese milk vetch, a leguminous plant, and in the other non-leguminous plants examined, N deficiency as well as P deficiency enhanced SL exudation. Distinct reductions in shoot P levels were observed in plants grown under N deficiency, except for tomato, in which shoot P level was increased by N starvation, suggesting that the P status of the shoot regulates SL exudation. There seems to be a correlation between shoot P levels and SL exudation across the species/families investigated.

Metabolite profiling of hydroxycinnamate derivatives in plasma and urine after the ingestion of coffee by humans: identification of biomarkers of coffee consumption.

Human subjects drank coffee containing 412 mumol of chlorogenic acids, and plasma and urine were collected 0 to 24 h after ingestion and were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Within 1 h, some of the components in the coffee reached nanomole peak plasma concentrations (C(max)), whereas chlorogenic acid metabolites, including caffeic acid-3-O-sulfate and ferulic acid-4-O-sulfate and sulfates of 3- and 4-caffeoylquinic acid lactones, had higher C(max) values. The short time to reach C(max) (T(max)) indicates absorption of these compounds in the small intestine. In contrast, dihydroferulic acid, its 4-O-sulfate, and dihydrocaffeic acid-3-O-sulfate exhibited much higher C(max) values (145-385 nM) with T(max) values in excess of 4 h, indicating absorption in the large intestine and the probable involvement of catabolism by colonic bacteria. These three compounds, along with ferulic acid-4-O-sulfate and dihydroferulic acid-4-O-glucuronide, were also major components to be excreted in urine (8.4-37.1 mumol) after coffee intake. Feruloylglycine, which is not detected in plasma, was also a major urinary component (20.7 mumol excreted). Other compounds, not accumulating in plasma but excreted in smaller quantities, included the 3-O-sulfate and 3-O-glucuronide of isoferulic acid, dihydro(iso)ferulic acid-3-O-glucuronide, and dihydrocaffeic acid-3-O-glucuronide. Overall, the 119.9 mumol excretion of the chlorogenic acid metabolites corresponded to 29.1% of intake, indicating that as well as being subject to extensive metabolism, chlorogenic acids in coffee are well absorbed. Pathways for the formation of the various metabolites within the body are proposed. Urinary dihydrocaffeic acid-3-O-sulfate and feruloylglycine are potentially very sensitive biomarkers for the consumption of relatively small amounts of coffee.

The last reaction producing brassinolide is catalyzed by cytochrome P-450s, CYP85A3 in tomato and CYP85A2 in Arabidopsis.

Brassinosteroids are steroidal hormones essential for the growth and development of plants. Brassinolide, the most biologically active brassinosteroid, has a seven-membered lactone ring that is formed by a Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of its immediate precursor castasterone. Despite its potential key role in controlling plant development, brassinolide synthase has not been identified. Previous work has shown that the formation of castasterone from 6-deoxocastasterone is catalyzed by members of the CYP85A family of cytochrome P-450 monooxygenases. A null mutation in the tomato Dwarf (CYP85A1) gene, extreme dwarf (d(x)), causes severe dwarfism due to brassinosteroid deficiency, but the d(x) mutant still produces fruits. Here, we show that d(x) fruits contain brassinolide at a higher level than wild-type fruits and that a new CYP85A gene, CYP85A3, is preferentially expressed in tomato fruits. Tomato CYP85A3 catalyzed the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation to produce brassinolide from castasterone in yeast, in addition to the conversion of 6-deoxocastasterone to castasterone. We also show that Arabidopsis CYP85A2, which was initially characterized as castasterone synthase, also has brassinolide synthase activity. Exogenous application of castasterone and brassinolide to the Arabidopsis cyp85a1/cyp85a2 double mutant suggests that castasterone can function as an active brassinosteroid but that its conversion into brassinolide is necessary for normal vegetative development in Arabidopsis. We postulate that castasterone is the major active brassinosteroid during vegetative growth in tomato, whereas brassinolide may play an organ-specific role in fruit development in this species.

Analysis of ellagitannins and conjugates of ellagic acid and quercetin in raspberry fruits by LC-MSn.

The use of gradient reversed phase HPLC with diode array and MS(n) detection for the analysis of ellagitannins, ellagic acid conjugates and quercetin conjugates in raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) is described. MS(n) is a particularly powerful tool for the analysis of trace levels of natural products in impure extracts as interpretation of fragmentation patterns, coupled in some instances with knowledge of HPLC retention properties, can facilitate the partial identification of components when reference compounds are unavailable.

Plant foods and herbal sources of resveratrol.

Stilbenes, in particular trans-resveratrol and its glucoside, are widely reported to be beneficial to health, having been shown to possess antioxidative, anticarcinogenic, and antitumor properties. Major dietary sources include grapes, wine, peanuts, and soy; however, they can also be introduced into the diet through Itadori tea, which has long been used in Japan and China as a traditional herbal remedy for heart disease and strokes. Analysis of grapes, peanuts, and Itadori tea shows that they contain mainly trans-resveratrol glucoside. In contrast, red wines are primarily a source of the aglycones cis- and trans-resveratrol. While peanuts and grapes contain low levels of the stilbenes, Itadori tea and red wine both supply relatively high concentrations of resveratrol. For people who do not consume alcohol, Itadori tea may be a suitable substitute for red wine. However, further study on the potential biological effects of other endogenous compounds in Itadori tea is required and there is also a need for more information on the absorption and in vivo biomedical actions of free and conjugated resveratrol.