Vemurafenib induces senescence in acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome by activating the HIPPO signaling pathway: implications for potential targeted therapy.

BACKGROUND: The outcome of Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) remain dismal despite the development of treatment. Targeted therapy is gaining more and more attention in improving prognosis. METHODS: Expression of BRAF was analyzed by RT-qPCR in AML and MDS patients. Cells viability treated by drugs was measured by CCK-8 assay. Network pharmacology and RNA-sequence were used to analyze the mechanism of drugs and verified in vitro and xenograft tumor model. RESULTS: Here we showed that BRAF was overexpressed in AML and MDS patients, and correlated with poor prognosis. The BRAF inhibitor-Vemurafenib (VEM) could significantly induce senescence, proliferation inhibition and apoptosis in AML cells, which can be enhanced by Bortezomib (BOR). This inhibitory effect was also verified in CD34 + cells derived from AML patients. Mechanistically, we showed that VEM combined with BOR could turn on HIPPO signaling pathway, thereby inducing cellular senescence in AML cells and xenograft mouse. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our findings demonstrate a significant upregulation of BRAF expression in AML and MDS patients, which is associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes. We also discovered that the BRAF inhibitor Vemurafenib induces cellular senescence through activation of the HIPPO signaling pathway. Analysis of BRAF expression holds promise as a prognostic indicator and potential therapeutic target for individuals with AML and MDS.

Determination and Chemotaxonomic Analysis of Lanostane Triterpenoids in the Mycelia of Ganoderma spp. Using Ultra-performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (I).

A comprehensive and sensitive method combining ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry was developed for the quantification of characteristic triterpenoids in Ganoderma mycelia. Eight ganoderic acids previously isolated from the mycelia of Ganoderma lingzhi were separated with a binary mobile phase on a reversed-phase C18 column. A triple quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization source was used as the detector in the negative ion mode. Identification and quantitation of target ganoderic acids were accomplished using the dynamic multiple reaction monitoring mode. The developed method was validated in terms of linearity, precision, accuracy, stability, and recovery. The method was first applied to quantify the contents of eight ganoderic acids in the mycelia of G. lingzhi at different times to determine the optimum fermentation conditions. Subsequently, the distribution of triterpenoids and the contents of eight ganoderic acids in sixteen different Ganoderma species were investigated. The results indicated that UV chromatography combined with dynamic multiple reaction monitoring quantification was an effective chemotaxonomy method for Ganoderma species identification. This study also provided a helpful analytical methodology for both scientific and industrial applications in the quality control of Ganoderma triterpenoids.

Chemical Components of Volatile Oil Extracted from the Fermentation Broth of Ganoderma lingzhi (Agaricomycetes) Coupled with Its Antitumor and Antioxidant Activities In Vitro.

Volatile oil extracted from fermentation broth of Ganoderma lingzhi by hydrodistillation was analyzed based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Its antitumor activity was tested on K562, SW620, A549, HepG2 cells in vitro. In addition, the antioxidant activity of the oil was determined using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. In total, 16 constituents were identified accounting for about 99.99% of the total volatile oil in the fermentation broth of G. lingzhi. Among these components, 1-propanol (33.33%), phenylacetaldehyde (24.24%), 2-hexyl-1-decanol (12.12%) were found to be the major constituents. The antitumor results showed that the IC50 of the inhibition to the proliferation of K562, SW620, A549, HepG2 cells were 32.2, 78.9, 96.4, 99.0 µg/mL, respectively. And the oil could inhibit the proliferation of K562 cells by apoptosis induction and cell cycle arrest at S phase. Moreover, the oil exhibited radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 0.1469 mg/mL) in DPPH assay.

Understanding the promotion of heat treatment on the flavor of Lentinula edodes using metabolomics integrated with transcriptomics.

The transcriptome and metabolome analyses revealed the differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) and genes (DEGs) in the dried Lentinula edodes' response to heat treatment. Most DEMs between the L.edodes sample groups were lipids and lipid-like molecules, nucleosides, nucleotides, analogs, and organic acids and derivatives. DEMs enrich the pathway of the TCA cycle, alanine, aspartate, glutamate metabolism, and arginine biosynthesis. The proportion of DEGs annotation in the metabolism pathway and the number of DEGs increased within the drying process of 2 h. The DEGs were annotated in the signal transduction and amino acid metabolism pathways during the drying process of 2 h âˆ¼ 3 h. Five DEGs including LE01Gene04306, LE01Gene06275, LE01Gene11513, LE01Gene13848 and LE01Gene13853 existed in all comparative groups. Twenty-nine DEMs marker can be used for monitoring the quality of L.edodes during drying. The metabolic pathways, secondary metabolites biosynthesis, and unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis were the landmark pathways that monitor DEMs and DEGs, and gamma-linolenic acid was a signal DEM marker. It provides new insights for understanding the flavor formation of L.edodes during the hot-air drying process.

Characterization and Heterologous Expression of UDP-Glucose 4-Epimerase From a Hericium erinaceus Mutant with High Polysaccharide Production.

Hericium erinaceus is an important medicinal fungus in traditional Chinese medicine because of its polysaccharides and other natural products. Compared terpenoids and polyketides, the analysis of synthetic pathway of polysaccharides is more difficult because of the many genes involved in central metabolism. In previous studies, A6180, encoding a putative UDP-glucose 4-epimerase (UGE) in an H. erinaceus mutant with high production of active polysaccharides, was significantly upregulated. Since there is no reliable genetic manipulation technology for H. erinaceus, we employed Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae to study the function and activity of A6180. The recombinant overexpression vector pET22b-A6180 was constructed for heterologous expression in E. coli. The enzymatic properties of the recombinant protein were investigated. It showed that the recombinant A6180 could strongly convert UDP-α-D-glucose into UDP-α-D-galactose under optimal conditions (pH 6.0, 30°C). In addition, when A6180 was introduced into S. cerevisiae BY4742, xylose was detected in the polysaccharide composition of the yeast transformant. This suggested that the protein coded by A6180 might be a multifunctional enzyme. The generated polysaccharides with a new composition of sugars showed enhanced macrophage activity in vitro. These results indicate that A6180 plays an important role in the structure and activity of polysaccharides. It is a promising strategy for producing polysaccharides with higher activity by introducing A6180 into polysaccharide-producing mushrooms.

Ganoderic acid T improves the radiosensitivity of HeLa cells via converting apoptosis to necroptosis.

The use of natural substances derived from traditional Chinese medicine and natural plants as safe radiosensitizing adjuvants is a new trend for cancer radiotherapy. Ganoderma lucidum has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine with a history of more than 2000 years. Ganoderic acid T (GAT) is a typical triterpene of G. lucidum, which has strong cytotoxicity to cancer cells, but whether it has radiation sensitization effect has not been explored. In this work, we treated the HeLa cells with different concentrations of GAT before exposure to gamma-ray radiation and investigated its influence on the radiosensitivity. The cell viability, apoptosis rate, necoptosis rate, intracellular ATP level, cell cycle, the amount of H2AX and 53BP1, reactive oxygen species, and mitochondrial membrane potential were examined. Apoptotic, necroptotic, and autophagic biomarker proteins, including caspase 8, cytochrome c, caspase 3, RIPK, MLKL, P62, and LC3, were analyzed. As a result, we confirmed that with treatment of GAT, the gamma-ray radiation induced both apoptosis and necroptosis in HeLa cells, and with increase of GAT, the percentage ratio of necroptosis was increased. The involved pathways and mechanisms were also explored and discussed.

Development and Optimization of the Triterpenoid and Sterol Production Process with Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum Strain G0017 (Agaricomycetes), in Liquid Submerged Fermentation at Large Scale.

Ganoderma lucidum mycelia are rich in active substances such as triterpenoids and sterols. However, reports on the development of effective submerged fermentation processes are lacking and the resulting total triterpene and sterol yield is still quite low. In this study, a new G. lucidum strain G0017 mycelium isolated by screening was studied in a 3-L fermenter to investigate the effect of aeration rate in liquid submerged fermentation production of triterpenoids and sterols. By fitting the specific mycelial growth rate and the specific production rate of the triterpenoid and sterol model, an effective multistage aeration rate control process for triterpenoid and sterol fermentation production was developed. This process was validated and proven in 3-L and 50-L fermenters. The resulting yields of triterpenoids and sterols were 3.34 and 3.46 g/L, respectively, which were 69.54% and 75.63% higher than the fixed aeration rate of 1.50 volume of air per volume of liquid per minute. This optimized fermentation production process conceivably could be applied to larger-scale industrial production and perhaps also to improve liquid submerged fermentation processes with relevant edible and medicinal mushrooms.

A Review on Linking the Medicinal Functions of Mushroom Prebiotics with Gut Microbiota.

In recent years, gut microbiota have been linked to prevention and treatment of human diseases. Mushrooms are a source of potentially useful prebiotics because they contain polysaccharides, terpenoids, and other bioactive compounds. In the present review, we have summarized the prebiotic effects of mushrooms on gut microbiota in the context of immunological, metabolic, neurological, and cancer-related diseases in the last five years. We propose that mushrooms can not only change the composition of gut microbiota, but also promote secretion of beneficial metabolites. In addition, we point to the effects of host mRNA expression in gut microbiota as a direction of further study. Overall, these provide a background for further studies on the mechanisms of regulation of gut microbiota by mushrooms.

Comparative Analysis of Triterpene Composition between Ganoderma lingzhi from China and G. lucidum from Slovakia under Different Growing Conditions.

The mushroom today known as Ganoderma lingzhi has been used for centuries in the countries of Eastern Asia as a very important medicinal mushroom. It prefers growing on rotten wood of broadleaf trees and is mainly distributed in the tropics and subtropics. Its relative G. lucidum occurs naturally almost all the Earth, and it colonizes mostly oak and beech trees in Central Europe. G. lingzhi and G. lucidum are similar species. To obtain the qualitative parameters of G. lingzhi and G. lucidum, several strains (five G. lingzhi strains and five G. lucidum ones) were chosen and cultivated in both Slovakia and China, using wood chip (beech and oak) substrate and liquid fermentation method, respectively. It was found that there were more low-polarity triterpenes in G. lucidum, while G. lingzhi contained more high-polarity triterpenes. Beech substrate was more suitable for the accumulation of triterpenes in solid cultivation for both strains of G. lucidum and G. lingzhi. Strain C4 of G. lingzhi and strain K2 of G. lucidum contained higher triterpenes in either mycelium or fruiting bodies. Data in this study can help to identify these two species and bring a great benefit to the production of bioactive compounds of G. lucidum from Slovakia.

The integration of metabolome and proteome reveals bioactive polyphenols and hispidin in ARTP mutagenized Phellinus baumii.

Phellinus baumii, also called "Sang Huang" in China, is broadly used as a kind of health food or folk medicine in Asia for its high biological activities, e.g. anti-tumor, anti-oxidation and anti-inflammatory activities. Although some previous studies have indicated that polysaccharides and flavonoids showed the activity of inhibiting tumor cells, the active metabolites of P. baumii needs further research. In our study, a stable P. baumii mutant (A67), generated by ARTP mutagenesis strategy, showed more significantly inhibiting tumor cells and enhancing antioxidant activity. Our further studies found that the increase of polyphenols content, especially hispidin, was an important reason of the biological activity enhancement of A67. According to the results of the integrated metabolome and proteome study, the increase of polyphenol content was caused by upregulation of the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. This study expanded the understanding of active compounds and metabolic pathway of P. baumii.

Increased Inhibition Effect of Antrodin C from the Stout Camphor Medicinal Mushroom, Taiwanofungus camphoratus (Agaricomycetes), on A549 through Crosstalk between Apoptosis and Autophagy.

Antrodin C was obtained from Taiwanofungus camphoratus mycelia. The inhibition effect of antrodin C on A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells was evaluated by plate clone formation, wound healing, cell cycle, activated caspase-3, Bax, P53, Bcl-2, and RAPR activities as well as reactive oxygen species release. Plate clone formation assay revealed that antrodin C could significantly inhibit the viability of A549 cells in vitro. Wound healing assay revealed that cell migration was inhibited by exposure to antrodin C at concentrations of 50 and 80 µg/mL. Flow cytometry revealed that antrodin C increased the percentages of cells in the G0/G1 phase at concentrations of 50 and 80 µg/mL and the apoptosis was related to upregulation of caspase-3, Bax, P53 expression, downregulation of Bcl-2, RAPR expression, and the release of reactive oxygen species in the A549 cells. CQ or RAPA could significantly promote or inhibit the inhibition effect on A549 proliferation induced by antrodin C, which suggests that the autophagy played a cytoprotective role on inhibition proliferation of A549 induced by antrodin C. These results indicated that the combination of pro-apoptosis agents and anti-autophagy agents may be a useful strategy in enhancing the anticancer efficacy in non-small cell lung cancer.

Chemical Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Volatile Oil from the White Jelly Mushroom, Tremella fuciformis (Tremellomycetes).

To fully analyze the composition of volatile oil extracted from Tremella fuciformis, hydrodistillation (HD) and solid phase microextraction (SPME) were adopted simultaneously. In both cases, the analysis was carried out using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and the antioxidant activity of the volatile oil was determined by the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method with rutin as a positive control. Nineteen components in HD and 68 components in SPME were identified, respectively. Moreover, the oil obtained from T. fuciformis by HD indicated that aromatic compounds were a major class (93.5%), followed by the terpenes (5.7%), alkanes (0.4%), and alcohols (0.3%). Among them, butylated hydroxytoluene was the highest concentration (92.5%) of the compounds. The compounds detected by SPME were different from those of HD, and the substances with the largest content were esters (57.7%), followed by alcohols (19.0%), acids (7.0%), and aldehydes (6.3%). Only three of the same substances were detected in both of them, namely borneol, (-)-α-terpineol, and acetic acid. In the DPPH assays, strong antioxidant activity (IC50 = 0.176 mg/mL) was evident in volatile oil from T. fuciformis. Antioxidant activity was positively correlated with the concentration of volatile oil.

Dissolution of Bioactive Components from Dried Fruiting Bodies of the Culinary-Medicinal Shiitake Mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes), during Cleaning, Soaking, and Cooking.

Lentinus edodes fruiting bodies are rich in active substances such as polysaccharides and eritadenine. Patients with gout, however, should avoid or severely limit their intake of foods containing large amounts of purine. In this study we quantitatively analyzed the polysaccharide and purine compounds dissolved from L. edodes fruiting bodies during cleaning, soaking, and cooking. Eritadenine, adenosine, guanosine, guanosine monophosphate, adenosine monophosphate, xanthine, and adenine dissolved from L. edodes fruiting bodies during cleaning with tap water; their dissolution rates ranged between 3.77% and 24.30%. Dissolution rates of polysaccharide and purine compounds in L. edodes fruiting bodies increased linearly with increases in the duration of soaking and cooking, and adding acetic acid or NaHCO3 in the soaking or cooking solutions significantly either inhibited or promoted their dissolution rates. On the basis of these experimental results, we offer science-based suggestions for reasonable treatment of L. edodes fruiting bodies before eating for both patients with gout and healthy people.

Effect of Culture Time on the Bioactive Components in the Fruit Bodies of Caterpillar Mushroom, Cordyceps militaris CM-H0810 (Ascomycetes).

Cordyceps militaris are widely cultivated in China for an important raw material for health foods. CM-H0810 is a C. militaris strain used in the production of C. militaris in Shanghai, the surrounding areas of Shanghai, and Guangdong province in China. We evaluated the effect of culture time on the bioactive components in the fruit bodies of C. militaris CM-H0810 to provide scientific references for production of C. militaris fruit bodies with good quality. The results showed that the polysaccharide contents increased gradually during 35-45 d, but it declined with the prolongation of culture time. The highest polysaccharide content was 3.46% at 45 d. With the prolongation of culture time the cordycepin content gradually increased; the highest cordycepin content was 3.57 µg/mg at 60 d, which increased 321% compared to that at 35 d. Contrary to cordycepin, the adenosine content declined gradually, with the highest content of 1.86 µg/mg at 35 d and the lowest content of 1.48 µg/mg at 60 d. Our study indicates that it is necessary to select suitable harvest times in view of different compounds that are desirable to obtain in high quantities.

Employment of ARTP to Generate Phellinus baumii (Agaricomycetes) Strain with High Flavonoids Production and Validation by Liquid Fermentation.

To obtain Phellinus baumii strain with high flavonoids yield, ARTP was employed to generate mutants of a Ph. baumii strain, which were screened for higher flavonoids content. After five rounds of screening, four mutants were identified to produce more flavonoids than the wild type strain under optimal conditions, of which A67 was the mutant with the highest flavonoids productive capacity. When cultured in shake flasks, the maximum intracellular total flavonoids production of A67 reached 0.56 g/L, 86.67% higher than the total flavonoids in CK. Antagonistic testing, RAPD, and HPLC analysis suggested that ARTP caused changes of the genetic material and metabolites in Ph. baumii. In addition, the superiority of A67 to CK was proved by liquid fermentation using unstructured kinetic models, which was performed in a 50-L fermentor. The maximum intracellular total flavonoids production and dry mycelium weight of A67 reached 0.64 g/L and 15.24 g/L, which was an increase of 88.24% and 18.23% compared with CK, respectively. This work could provide an efficient and practical strategy to obtain high flavonoids production strains and the superiority of A67 could also provide a reference to further increase flavonoids production of Ph. baumii in large-scale production mode by submerged fermentation process.

Triterpenes and Soluble Polysaccharide Changes in Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes), During Fruiting Growth.

We analyzed the changes in triterpenes and soluble polysaccharides in Ganoderma lucidum strain G0119 during 4 growth phases in 3 regions of the fruiting bodies using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, and we also analyzed the soluble polysaccharides using high-performance size-exclusion chroma-tography-multiple-angle laser-light scattering refractive index analysis. The strong polar triterpenes decreased while weak polar triterpenes increased during the growth cycle of G. lucidum. The highest contents of ganoderic acid B, ganoderic acid A, and ganoderenic acid B were detected in the stipe during phase II, and ganoderic acid S, ganoderic acid T, and ganoderiol B peaked in the base during phase IV. The total content of soluble polysaccharides in samples decreased after the primordium developed into a fruiting body. Two high-molecular-weight fractions were detected in the soluble polysaccharide samples: α-l,4-glucan and ß-l,3-glucan, respectively. They were primarily distributed in the pileus during phase II, and both decreased after this phase. These results led us to select a more suitable growth phase and region for harvesting to obtain extracts with higher contents of triterpenes and soluble polysaccharides.

Structural Characteristics of the Novel Polysaccharide FVPA1 from Winter Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom, Flammulina velutipes (Agaricomycetes), Capable of Enhancing Natural Killer Cell Activity against K562 Tumor Cells.

FVPA1, a novel polysaccharide, has been isolated from fruiting bodies of the culinary-medicinal mushroom Flammulina velutipes, a historically popular, widely cultivated and consumed functional food with an attractive taste, beneficial nutraceutical properties such as antitumor and immunomodulatory effects, and a number of essential biological activities. The average molecular weight was estimated to be ~1.8 × 104 Da based on high-performance size exclusion chromatography. Sugar analyses, methylation analyses, and 1H, 13C, and 2-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed the following structure of the repeating units of the FVPA1 polysaccharide Identification of this structure would conceivably lead to better understanding of the nutraceutical functions of this very important edible fungus. Bioactivity tests in vitro indicated that FVPA1 could significantly enhance natural killer cell activity against K562 tumor cells.

Antitumor Effect of By-1 from Spent Broth from Submerged Cultures of Stout Camphor Medicinal Mushroom, Taiwanofungus camphoratus (Higher Basidiomycetes), on A549 Adenocarcinoma Cells.

By-1 was obtained from spent broth from submerged cultures of Taiwanofungus camphoratus. This report evaluates the effects of By-1 on plate clone formation, wound healing, cell cycle, activated caspase-3 expression, and ROS release in A549 lung cancer cells. The result of plate clone formation assay revealed that By-1 could dramatically inhibit the viability of A549 cells in vitro. The inhibitory effect of By-1 on cell migration was tested using a wound healing assay. Proliferation rates of A549 cells were significantly inhibited following exposure to By-1 (12.5, 50, and 80 µg/mL). Flow cytometry revealed that the extracts increased, in a concentration-dependent manner, the number of cells in the G0/G1 phases of the cell cycle. The results of the caspase-3 experiment suggested that By-1 could induce A549 cells apoptosis, and this apoptosis was related to the release of reactive oxygen species by the A549 cells. All these results indicate that By-1 has potential in anti-lung cancer drug development.

Characterization of Polysaccharides from the Fruiting Bodies of Two Species of Genus Ganoderma (Agaricomycetes) and Determination of Water-Soluble ß-D-Glucan Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography.

Molecular weight (Mw) distributions of polysaccharides from the fruiting bodies of different Ganoderma lucidum strains and G. sinense were investigated and compared using high-pressure size exclusion chromatography/multiangle laser light scattering/refractive index analysis. Results showed that there were big differences in the Mw distributions and characteristics of polysaccharides from 2 species of Ganoderma. All tested G. lucidum materials exhibited similar polysaccharide distributions and similar characteristics for each fraction. The fraction with highest Mw (peak 1) was identified as ß-(1→3)-linked D-glucan with (1→6)-ß-D-glucopyranosyl side branches. G. sinense fruiting bodies did not include the ß-D-glucan when compared with G. lucidum. A high-pressure size exclusion chromatography method was developed and applied to determine the amount of high-Mw ß-D-glucan in G. lucidum fruiting bodies. Results indicated that there was no obvious relationship between ß-D-glucan content and the genetic similarity of G. lucidum. The strain labeled "Longzhi no. 2" was determined to possess the largest amount of ß-D-glucan: 8.2 mg/mL based on the dry weight of fruiting bodies. The ß-D-glucan content in the hot water extract of Longzhi no. 2 reached 17.05%. For the "Hunong no. 1" strain, the ß-D-glucan content in log-cultivated fruiting bodies was much higher than that in bag-cultivated ones. This method could be used to improve quality control of polysaccharides in G. lucidum.

Structural Characterization and Immunological Activities of a Novel Water-Soluble Polysaccharide from the Fruiting Bodies of Culinary-Medicinal Winter Mushroom, Flammulina velutipes (Agaricomycetes).

A water-soluble polysaccharide, designated FVPA2, was isolated from the fruiting bodies of Flammulina velutipes using DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow and gel-permeation chromatography. Its structure was elucidated by monosaccharide composition and methylation analysis, ultraviolet, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Results showed that FVPA2 was a homogeneous heteropolysaccharide containing galactose, fucose, and mannose in a molar ratio of 5:1:1. High-performance liquid chromatography indicated its molecular weight as 3.4 × 104 Da. FVPA2 also has a repeating unit. In vitro immunomodulatory studies showed that Raw264.7 cells were stimulated to secret nitric oxide upon administration of 200-500 µg/mL FVPA2. FVPA2 also stimulated the proliferation of mouse spleen lymphocytes and B lymphocytes.