Bartolomeo Panizza (1785-1867) and his contribution to the discovery of the visual cortex.

Bartolomeo Panizza (1785-1867) was an eminent anatomist and a pupil of Antonio Scarpa (1752-1832) at the University of Pavia. In 1855, before the revolutionary studies of Paul Broca (1824-1880) on aphasia that supported the theory of cortical localizations, Panizza delivered a lecture in Milan on the anatomy of the visual system, Osservazioni sul Nervo Ottico ("Observations on the optic nerve"). This lecture contains the first description of the cortical projection of the visual pathways in the occipital lobe, anticipating the revolutionary studies performed by Hermann Munk (1839-1912) in the late 19th century. The findings of Panizza questioned the assumption of the French physiologist, Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens (1794-1867) who was defending the holistic concept of cerebral equipotentiality, which was widely accepted among the scientific community in the early 19th century. The present essay highlights the life and the scientific studies of Bartolomeo Panizza, with emphasis on the issue of cerebral localization that was simmering in the scientific community at that time.

Medical specimens and the erasure of racial violence: the case of Harriet Cole.

This article analyses the complex narrative of Harriet Cole, a 36-year-old African-American woman whose body was delivered to the anatomy department of Hahnemann Medical School in 1888. The anatomist Rufus B Weaver used her preserved remains to create a singular anatomical specimen, an intact extraction of the 'cerebro-spinal nervous system'. Initially anonymised, deracialised and unsexed, the central nervous system specimen endured for decades before her identity as a working-class woman of colour was reunited with her remains. In the 1930s, media accounts began to circulate that Harriet Cole had bequeathed her remains to the anatomist, a claim that continues to circulate uncritically in the biomedical literature today. Although we conclude that this is likely a confabulation that erased the history of violence to her autonomy and her dead body, the rhetorical possibility that Harriet Cole might have chosen to donate her body to the medical school reflects the racial, political and legal dimensions that influenced how and why the story of Harriet Cole's 'gift' served multiple purposes in the century and a half since her death.

The evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy: From antiquity to modern times.

Present day scenario regarding epistemological methods in anatomy is in sharp contrast to the situation during ancient period. This study aimed to explore the evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy across centuries. In ancient times Egyptian embalmers acquired anatomical knowledge from handling human bodies and likewise anatomical studies in India involved human dissection. Ancient Greeks used theological principles-based methods, animal dissection and human dissection in practice of anatomy. Human dissection was also practiced in ancient China for gaining anatomical knowledge. Prohibition of human dissection led to use of animal dissection in ancient Rome and the trend continued in Europe through Middle Ages. Epistemological methods used by Muslim scholars during Middle Ages are not clearly chronicled. Human dissection returned as primary epistemological method in Renaissance Europe and empirical methods were reinstated after ancient period in human dissection during 16th century. The situation further improved with introduction of pragmatic experiment based approach during 17th century and autopsy-based methods during 18th century. Advances in anatomical knowledge continued with advent of microscope-based methods and emergence of anatomical sections in practice of human dissection in 19th century. Introduction of human observational studies, medical imaging, and molecular methods presented more options in terms of epistemological methods for investigating the human body during 20th century. Onset of 21st century has witnessed dominance of technology-based methods in anatomy. Limited emphasis on ethics in epistemological methodologies since antiquity is a dark aspect of otherwise an eventful evolutionary journey but recent developments are in positive direction.

The Anatomy in Greek Iatrosophia during the Ottoman domination era.

The knowledge of Anatomy during the Ottoman domination in Greece has not been widely studied. Medical knowledge of the time can be retrieved from folk and erudite books called Iatrosophia. The majority of these books focused on empirical diagnostics and therapeutics. However, a small quota of these Iatrosophia includes important information about anatomy. The interest in anatomy appears only after the Neohellenic Enlightenment (1750-1821) and has been associated to the scholarly background of the 1821 revolution against the Ottomans. At the same time, anatomy has been discussed by various authors in diverse contexts. All in all, it appears that a consensus on the importance of anatomy has been established among Greek scholars in the late 18th century, leading to the translation of current anatomical knowledge to the contemporary language and literature.

The history of anatomical research of lymphatics - From the ancient times to the end of the European Renaissance.

Very often, descriptions of the scientific discovery of the lymphatic system start with Gaspare Aselli, probably because of his so captivating account. Nevertheless, there was prior and even very old evidence of the lymphatic vessels, which was of course known to Aselli himself, as he cited most of these antique references. In fact, the first insights were contributed by the Hippocratic School. The Alexandrian School added quite a lot but unfortunately most of that knowledge is not extant and can only be appreciated by translations or citations by other authors such as Galen. The 'dark' middle ages did not add to the anatomical knowledge of the lymphatics, and only the rise of the Renaissance brought new insights. Even at that time, Aselli was not the first to identify at least some components of the lymphatic system, but he was actually the first to present a proper account in a book dedicated to the "lacteal veins". Afterwards the interest rose enormously and cumulated in one of the first priority - or plagiarism - disputes, the Rudbeck-Bartholin feud. Surprisingly, William Harvey, the discoverer of the systemic blood circulation, ignored, at least in part, the progress of the discoveries in lymphatic circulation. This narrative review tries to summarize the major contributions to the anatomical knowledge of the lymphatic system from the ancient times up to the end of the European Renaissance.

Vesalius criticism on Galen's musculoskeletal anatomy.

Galen of Pergamum (129-216/217 AD), an important Greek physician, influenced the history of medicine for more than 1400 years. However, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), after performing dissections of human cadavers, remarked that Galen made several mistakes due to the fact that his dissections were on animals, particularly on apes. The current study summarizes the main points in which Vesalius criticized Galen in terms of the musculoskeletal anatomy.

Anatomy of the Ribs and Management of their Fractures as Viewed by Avicenna (980-1037 Ad)

INTRODUCTION: Avicenna statedinteresting points on the symptoms of rib bone fractures, their physical examination, and also treatment and management of the complications in his master piece Canon in Tibb. METHOD: We reviewed Avicenna's Canon and his viewpoints on the anatomy of the rib bones and their fractures and compared it with conventional medicine. RESULT: He described the ana omy of the ribs; he explained the effectiveness of their structure in the prote tion of vital organs. He also suggested some methods for the management of rib fractures, such as using vacuum at the fracture site or open surgery in case of complications. CONCLUSION: Avicenna's point of view on the approach toward rib fractures had some similarities and differences with conventional practice. Some of his suggestions could be taken into account.

A critical appraisal of 11th century treatise by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) on the anatomy of the vascular system: Comparison with modern anatomic descriptions.

Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna in the West) was the most famous physician and medical scientist of the medieval era. His book, the Canon of Medicine comprised a vast collection of medical information ranging from basic medical sciences to specialised medical fields. Herein, we present an analysis of the cardiovascular system, particularly giving an in-depth comparison of the structural and functional anatomy of the arteries and veins of the body as described by Avicenna in the Canon of Medicine and comparing them to modern extant anatomical literature.

Promoting free flow in the networks: Reimagining the body in early modern Suzhou.

The history of Chinese medicine is still widely imagined in terms dictated by the discourse of modernity, that is as 'traditional' and 'Chinese.' And yet, so as to be intelligible to us moderns, it must simultaneously be framed through categories that make it comparable somehow to the 'West' and the 'modern' from which it is said to be essentially different. This is accomplished, for instance, by viewing Chinese medicine as fundamentally shaped by cosmological thinking, as focusing on process rather than matter, and as forever hampered by attachments to the past even when it tries to innovate. At the same time, it is described as pursuing its objectives in ways that make sense in 'our' terms, too, such as the goal of creating physiological homeostasis through methods of supplementation and drainage. In this paper, I seek to move beyond this kind of analysis through a two-pronged approach. First, by focusing on the concept of tong - a character that calls forth images of free flow, connectivity, relatedness and understanding - I foreground an important aspect of Chinese medical thinking and practice that has virtually been ignored by Western historians of medicine and science. Second, by exploring how the influential physician Ye Tianshi (1664-1746) employed tong to advance medical thinking and practice at a crucial moment of change in the history of Chinese medicine, I demonstrate that physicians in early modern China moved towards new understandings of the body readily intelligible by modern biomedical anatomy. I argue that this mode of analysis allows us to transcend the limitations inherent in the current historiography of Chinese medicine: because it allows for comparison to emerge from our subject matter rather than imposing our imaginaries onto it in advance.

Historia de la anatomía en Chile: los inicios / History of anatomy in Chile: the beginnings

Revisando el desarrollo universal de la anatomía para dar un contexto general, el presente trabajo pretende reunir los antecedentes históricos de los inicios de los estudios anatómicos en Chile y su descripción según los distintos periodos de la historia, desde el Chile Prehispánico hasta la mitad del periodo de La República Conservadora, evidenciando los difíciles comienzos, los escasos elementos que lo caracterizaron y su informalidad inicial para pasar posteriormnte a una institucionalidad establecida de la mano de la independencia del país.. Por ello, es posible ver la influencia que sobre la enseñanza de la disciplina tiene no sólo el avance científico y el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías, sino también cómo las influencias políticas tanto internas como externas influyeron en el desarrollo de la disciplina a través de los años. La presente descripción por tanto comprende los primeros cinco periodos de nuestra historia e inicios del sexto como nación, desde la descripción de algunos conocimientos anatómicos de los pueblos originarios presentes en la región antes de la llegada de los españoles en la Conquista y finalizando con la descripción de los comienzos de la enseñanza institucional de la Anatomía en el Instituto Nacional, marcando eventos trascendentales de nuestra historia como disciplina, previo al nacimiento de la enseñanza en la Universidad de Chile, primera Unversidad que la imparte en nuestro país.

Reviewing the universal development of anatomy to provide a general context, the present work seeks to gather the historical events of the beginnings of anatomical studies in Chile and their description according to the different periods of history, from Prehispanic Chile to the mid-period of The Conservative Republic, evidencing the difficult beginnings, the scarce elements that characterized it and the initial informality to later move on to an established institutionality along with the country's independence. Therefore, it is possible to note that the discipline has been influenced not only at a scientific level, and by the development of new technologies, but also internal and external political events that influenced the development of this discipline over the years. The present description therefore comprises the first five periods of our history and beginnings of the sixth as a nation, from the description of some anatomical knowledge of the native peoples present in the region before the arrival of the Spanish conquerors during the Period of the Conquest and ending with the description of the beginnings of the institutional teaching of Anatomy at the National Institute, indicating transcendental events of our history as a discipline, prior to the birth of the teaching of anatomy at the Universidad de Chile, the first University to teach anatomy in our country.

The relationship between Vesalius and the Borgarucci family.

Two of the four brothers Borgarucci were medical doctors and in one way or another, be it distantly, connected with the great master Vesalius. Giulio Borgarucci was a physician, who became a Calvinist and emigrated to England where he treated many noblemen and friends of Queen Elisabeth I. He was present at a conversation between the Italian writer and traveler Pietro Bizzari and the Venetian jeweler who witnessed Vesalius' death in Zakynthos. Prospero Borgarucci became professor of anatomy and surgery in Padua, some 20 years after Vesalius. He published several treatises on anatomy, pestilential disease, and materia medica. Prospero Borgarucci became physician to Queen Catherine de Medicis in France, and to Archduke Karl II of Habsburg in Graz. His most important work is the so-called Chirurgia Magna of Vesalius. Text and illustrations of this spurious Vesalian work point to the use of passages of the Epitome, surgical college notes and copied Vesalian images in Borgarucci's Chirurgia Magna.

The Middle Ages Contributions to Cardiovascular Medicine.

The historical period called the Middle Ages, a long interval between the 5th and the 15th centuries, is still commonly known as the Dark Ages, especially in the area of health sciences. In the last decades, this "classic" view of the Middle Ages has been gradually modified with advances in historiographical studies and the history of science. During that period in Western Europe, knowledge about the human body suffered a regression in terms of anatomy and physiology, with the predominance of religious conceptions mainly about diseases and their treatments. Knowledge on the cardiovascular system and heart diseases has been classically described as a repetition of the concepts developed by Galen from the dissection of animals and his keen sense of observation. However, the Middle East, especially Persia, was the birth place of a lot of intellectuals who preserved the ancient knowledge of the Greeks while building new knowledge and practices, especially from the 8th to the 13th century. The invasion of the Arabs in North of Africa and the Iberian Peninsula and the eclosion of the Crusades resulted in a greater contact between the East and the West, which in turn brought on the arrival of the Arab medical knowledge, among others, to 12th century Europe. Such fact contributed to an extremely important change in the scientific medical knowledge in the West, leading to the incorporation of different concepts and practices in the field of cardiovascular Medicine. The new way of teaching and practicing Medicine of the great Arab doctors, together with the teaching hospitals and foundations in the Koran, transformed the Medicine practiced in Europe definitely. The objective of this paper is to describe the knowledge drawn up from the Middle Ages about the cardiovascular system, its understanding and therapeutic approach to cardiologists and cardiovascular surgeons.

The mystery of the thymus gland.

The thymus is the last organ in the human body to have its mechanisms fully understood, having had its function fully delineated more than 50 years ago (Miller , Tissue Antigens 63:509-517). Prior to this, the thymus gland has had an interesting history with theories having included a role in fetal growth and development before becoming more sinisterly, a cause of sudden infant death in the late 19th century known as status lymphaticus (Paltauf , Wien Klin Wochenschr 2:877-881). Until Miller (, Lancet 278:748-749) eventually proved its primarily immunological role, the history of this mysterious gland has closely mirrored the history of medicine itself, troubling the minds of pathologists such as Virchow (, Ueber die Chlorose und die damit zusammenhängenden Anomalien im Gefässapparate, insbesondere über "Endocarditis puerperalis," vorgetragen in der Sitzung der Berliner Geburtshülflichen Gesellschaft vom 12) and Grawitz (, Deut Med Wochenschr 22:429-431), surgeons such as Astley Cooper (, The Anatomy of the Thymus Gland) and Keynes (1953, Ann R Coll Surg 12:88), and eminent medical epidemiologists such as Greenwood and Woods [, J Hyg (Lond) 26:305-326]. This article will hopefully be of interest therefore to both clinician and historian alike. Clin. Anat. 29:679-684, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The middle ages contributions to cardiovascular medicine

Abstract The historical period called the Middle Ages, a long interval between the 5th and the 15th centuries, is still commonly known as the Dark Ages, especially in the area of health sciences. In the last decades, this "classic" view of the Middle Ages has been gradually modified with advances in historiographical studies and the history of science. During that period in Western Europe, knowledge about the human body suffered a regression in terms of anatomy and physiology, with the predominance of religious conceptions mainly about diseases and their treatments. Knowledge on the cardiovascular system and heart diseases has been classically described as a repetition of the concepts developed by Galen from the dissection of animals and his keen sense of observation. However, the Middle East, especially Persia, was the birth place of a lot of intellectuals who preserved the ancient knowledge of the Greeks while building new knowledge and practices, especially from the 8th to the 13th century. The invasion of the Arabs in North of Africa and the Iberian Peninsula and the eclosion of the Crusades resulted in a greater contact between the East and the West, which in turn brought on the arrival of the Arab medical knowledge, among others, to 12th century Europe. Such fact contributed to an extremely important change in the scientific medical knowledge in the West, leading to the incorporation of different concepts and practices in the field of cardiovascular Medicine. The new way of teaching and practicing Medicine of the great Arab doctors, together with the teaching hospitals and foundations in the Koran, transformed the Medicine practiced in Europe definitely. The objective of this paper is to describe the knowledge drawn up from the Middle Ages about the cardiovascular system, its understanding and therapeutic approach to cardiologists and cardiovascular surgeons.

Medical missionaries to China and the reformation of anatomy.

The earliest record of human anatomy in chapters of the Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic is likely to be based upon proper dissections. The first incident of human dissection for medical purpose documented in the History of Han Dynasty occurred in AD 13. During the Sung dynasty, a physician prepared illustrations of internal organs of executed criminals, published in 1113 as the Images of Truth Successive Chinese medical treatises have plagiarized but preserved the anatomical diagrams without improvements or modifications. China had to wait till the mid-19th century for Anglo-American Protestant medical missionaries to bring about a complete and permanent reformation of anatomical science.