Apigenin analogues as SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitors: In-silico screening approach.

The COVID-19 new variants spread rapidly all over the world, and until now scientists strive to find virus-specific antivirals for its treatment. The main protease of SARS-CoV-2 (Mpro) exhibits high structural and sequence homology to main protease of SARS-CoV (93.23% sequence identity), and their sequence alignment indicated 12 mutated/variant residues. The sequence alignment of SARS-CoV-2 main protease led to identification of only one mutated/variant residue with no significant role in its enzymatic process. Therefore, Mpro was considered as a high-profile drug target in anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug discovery. Apigenin analogues to COVID-19 main protease binding were evaluated. The detailed interactions between the analogues of Apigenin and SARS-CoV-2 Mpro inhibitors were determined as hydrogen bonds, electronic bonds and hydrophobic interactions. The binding energies obtained from the molecular docking of Mpro with Boceprevir, Apigenin, Apigenin 7-glucoside-4'-p-coumarate, Apigenin 7-glucoside-4'-trans-caffeate and Apigenin 7-O-beta-d-glucoside (Cosmosiin) were found to be -6.6, -7.2, -8.8, -8.7 and -8.0 kcal/mol, respectively. Pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicological characteristics obtained by computational techniques and Virtual ADME studies of the Apigenin analogues confirmed that the Apigenin 7-glucoside-4'-p-coumarate is the best candidate for SARS-CoV-2 Mpro inhibition.

Breviscapine: A Review on its Phytochemistry, Pharmacokinetics and Therapeutic Effects.

Breviscapine is one of the extracts of several flavonoids of Erigeron breviscapus. Scutellarin is the main active component of breviscapine, and the qualitative or quantitative criteria as well. Scutellarin and its analogs share a similar skeleton of the flavonoids. Breviscapine has been widely used in the treatment of cerebral infarction and its sequelae, cerebral thrombus, coronary heart disease (CHD), and angina pectoris. Breviscapine has a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, such as increasing blood flow, improving microcirculation, dilating blood vessels, decreasing blood viscosity, promoting fibrinolysis, inhibiting platelet aggregation, and thrombosis formation, etc. In addition, breviscapine and its analogs have significant value for drug research and development because of the superiority of those significant bioactivities. Furthermore, an increasing number of pharmacokinetic studies have explored the mechanism of scutellarin and its analogs. To provide a comprehensive understanding of the current research on breviscapine, scutellarin, and the analogs, the structural features, distribution situation, preparation method, content determination method, clinical applications, pharmacological action as well as pharmacokinetics are summarized in the present review.

ß-Glucuronidase- and OATP2B1-mediated drug interaction of scutellarin in Dengzhan Xixin Injection: A formulation aspect.

Scutellarin is the major and active constituent of Dengzhan Xixin Injection (DZXX), a traditional Chinese medicine prepared from the aqueous extract of Erigeron breviscapus and widely used for the treatment of various cerebrovascular diseases in clinic. In present study, the possible pharmacokinetic differences of scutellarin after intravenous administration of scutellarin alone or DZXX were explored. Additional, the potential roles of ß-glucuronidase (GLU) and OATP2B1 in drug-drug interaction (DDI) between scutellarin and constituents of DZXX were further evaluated in vitro. The plasma concentration, urinary and biliary excretion of scutellarin in rats after administration of DZXX, were significantly higher than those received scutellarin, while pharmacokinetic profile of Apigenin 7-O-glucuronide (AG) in rats was similar no matter AG or DZXX group. Furthermore, higher concentration in brain and plasma, however, lower level of scutellarin in intestine were observed after intravenous administration of DZXX. Finally, AG and caffeoylquinic acid esters were found to significantly inhibit GLU and OATP2B1 in vitro, which might explain, at least in part, the pharmacokinetic DDI between scutellarin and other chemical constituents in DZXX. The findings provided deep insight into the prescription-formulating principle in DZXX for treating the cerebrovascular diseases.

An ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous determination of thirteen components extracted from Radix Puerariae in rat plasma and tissues: Application to pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution study.

A rapid and sensitive ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method was established and validated for simultaneous determination of thirteen bioactive components (gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, puerarin, p-hydroxycinnamic acid, daidzin, ononin, daidzein, naringenin, genistein, apigenin, formononetin, biochanin A, and ß-sitosterol) of Radix Puerariae extract in rat plasma and tissues. The plasma and tissues samples were pretreated by protein precipitation extraction, and umbelliferone and rutin were used as internal standards. Sample separation was performed on a ZORBAX RRHD Eclipse plus C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.8 µm, Agilent) with a mobile phase consisting of methanol-water (containing 0.1% formic acid). The mass spectrometry analysis was conducted in positive and negative ionization modes with multiple reaction monitoring. The lower limit of quantitation range for the 13 analytes was 0.2-35 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-day precision of all the analytes were less than 10.92%, with an accuracy ranging from -13.10 to 11.96%. Both the recovery and matrix effect were within acceptable limits. This method was successfully applied to pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution study of the 13 bioactive components in rats after oral administration of R. Puerariae extract.

A Review on Flavonoid Apigenin: Dietary Intake, ADME, Antimicrobial Effects, and Interactions with Human Gut Microbiota.

Apigenin is a flavonoid of low toxicity and multiple beneficial bioactivities. Published reviews all focused on the findings using eukaryotic cells, animal models, or epidemiological studies covering the pharmacokinetics, cancer chemoprevention, and drug interactions of apigenin; however, no review is available on the antimicrobial effects of apigenin. Research proves that dietary apigenin passes through the upper gastrointestinal tract and reaches the colon after consumption. For that reason, it is worthwhile to study the potential interactions between apigenin and human gut microbiota. This review summarizes studies on antimicrobial effects of apigenin as well as what has been reported on apigenin and human gut microbiota. Various levels of effectiveness have been reported on apigenin's antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic capability. It has been shown that apigenin or its glycosides are degraded into smaller metabolites by certain gut bacteria which can regulate the human body after absorption. How apigenin contributes to the structural and functional changes in human gut microbiota as well as the bioactivities of apigenin bacterial metabolites are worth further investigation.

Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method for determination of four compounds in rat plasma after oral administration of Xanthii fructus and stir-fried Xanthii fructus extracts.

Xanthii fructus (XF), the fruit of Xanthium sibiricum Patr., is a traditional Chinese materia medica commonly used to treat allergic rhinitis and other rhinitis diseases. To uncover the mechanism of the stir-frying process and its effect on the pharmacokinetic behavior of active compounds in model rats, four active compounds-chlorogenic acid, 4-caffeoylquinic acid, 1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid and apigenin-were selected based on previous spectrum-effect experiments. High performance liquid chromatography tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqQ-MS) technology, an accurate and feasible method, was applied to measure the concentration of these four compounds in rat plasma. This validated method can accurately measure the concentration of each compound at each sampling point of rat plasma. This validated method shows good linearity, extraction recoveries, matrix effects, intra- and inter-day precision and stabilities. Compared with the XF group, the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax ) value of 1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid decreased remarkably (p < 0.05) after oral administration of stir-fried Xanthii fructus (SXF) extract, while the other compounds showed no significant difference. The mean residence time value of chlorogenic acid (p < 0.05) and 1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid (p<0.01) after oral administration of SXF extraction demonstrated significant differences compared with the XF group, while the other two compounds showed no statistical difference, indicating that the stir-frying process prolonged the effect time and delayed the removal time of chlorogenic acid and 1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid. The values of the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to the last quantifiable time-point, the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to infinity, the time to maximum concentration and the elimination half-life of four compounds in the SXF group showed no statistically significant difference from the XF group. From this data, we speculated that the stir-frying process can not only keep the absorption of 4-caffeoylquinic acid and apigenin, but also increase the effect time of chlorogenic acid and 1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, which could be the mechanism underlying the stir-frying process enhancing the effects of XF.

A UPLC-ESI-MS/MS Method for Simultaneous Quantitation of Chlorogenic Acid, Scutellarin, and Scutellarein in Rat Plasma: Application to a Comparative Pharmacokinetic Study in Sham-Operated and MCAO Rats after Oral Administration of Erigeron breviscapus Extract.

Erigeron breviscapus, a traditional Chinese medicine, is clinically used for the treatment of occlusive cerebral vascular diseases. We developed a sensitive and reliable ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method for simultaneous quantitation of chlorogenic acid, scutellarin, and scutellarein, the main active constituents in Erigeron breviscapus, and compared the pharmacokinetics of these active ingredients in sham-operated and middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats orally administrated with Erigeron breviscapus extract. Plasma samples were collected at 15 time points after oral administration of the Erigeron breviscapus extract. The levels of chlorogenic acid, scutellarin, and scutellarein in rat plasma at various time points were determined by a UPLC-ESI-MS/MS method, and the drug concentration versus time plots were constructed to estimate pharmacokinetic parameters. The concentration of chlorogenic acid in the plasma reached the maximum plasma drug concentration in about 15 min and was below the limit of detection after 4 h. Scutellarin and scutellarein showed the phenomenon of multiple absorption peaks in sham-operated and MCAO rats, respectively. Compared with the sham-operated rats, the terminal elimination half-life of scutellarein in the MCAO rats was prolonged by more than two times and the area under the curve of each component in the MCAO rats was significantly increased. The results showed chlorogenic acid, scutellarin, and scutellarein in MCAO rats had higher drug exposure than that in sham-operated rats, which provided a reference for the development of innovative drugs, optimal dosing regimens, and clinical rational drug use.

LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of luteolin, wedelolactone and apigenin in mice plasma using hansen solubility parameters for liquid-liquid extraction: Application to pharmacokinetics of Eclipta alba chloroform fraction.

Eclipta alba (Bhringraj) in ayurveda has been widely used as a traditional medicine for its multi-therapeutic properties for ages. Luteolin (LTL), wedelolactone (WDL) and apigenin (APG) are the three main bioactive phytochemicals present in Eclipta alba extract. However there was a lack of sensitive bioanalytical method for the pharmacokinetics of these free compounds in plasma which majorly contributes for their activities after oral administration of Eclipta alba. The present study aims to develop a sensitive, rapid and reliable liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous estimation of mice plasma concentrations of LTL, WDL and APG using quercetin as an internal standard for the pharmacokinetic analysis. Analytes were separated on Phenomenex Luna C18 (150 × 4.6 mm, 3.0 µm) column with mobile phase containing methanol: acetonitrile (90: 10, v/v) and 0.1% formic acid in 10 mM ammonium formate buffer in the ratio of 70: 30 (v/v) in isocratic mode. Liquid-liquid extraction was optimized using Hansen solubility parameters and diethyl ether finalized as an extraction solvent for the recovery ranging from 61 to 76% for all analytes in mice plasma. The validated method has an accuracy and precision over the linearity range of 0.1-200 ng/mL with a correlation coefficient (r2) of ≥0.997. The intra and inter-day assay accuracy was between 98.17 and 107% and 95.83-107.89% respectively and the intra and inter day assay precision ranged from 0.37-6.05% and 1.85-10.76%, respectively for all the analytes. This validated method can be used for future clinical investigation studies of Eclipta alba extracts.

Pharmacokinetic comparison of seven major bioactive components in normal and depression model rats after oral administration of Baihe Zhimu decoction by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

A simple and rapid liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was firstly developed for simultaneous quantification of neomangiferin, mangiferin, regaloside A, regaloside I, timosaponin BII, anemarsaponin E and timosaponin AIII in rat plasma after oral administration of Baihe Zhimu decoction, which plays an important role for the treatment of depression. The plasma samples were pretreated by a one-step direct protein precipitation with methanol. Separation of the seven components and scutellarin (IS) from endogenous components with high selectivity and sensitivity (LLOQ, 0.1-1.0ng/mL) was achieved within 10min using Poroshell 120 EC-C18 column (150mm×3.0mm, 2.7µm). A gradient mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile and water (containing 5mM ammonium acetate) was applied at a flow rate of 0.4mL/min. Detection and measurement were performed on an AB Sciex QTRAP® 5500 mass spectrometer in multiple reactions monitoring mode. The intra- and inter-day precisions were all within 15% and the accuracies were in the range of -10.4% to 14.5%. The recovery ranged from 90.8 to 113.8%. The validated method was successfully applied to pharmacokinetic study of the seven components in normal and chronic unpredicted mild stress-induced depression model rats.

Intranasal administration of brain-targeted HP-ß-CD/chitosan nanoparticles for delivery of scutellarin, a compound with protective effect in cerebral ischaemia.

OBJECTIVES: Scutellarin (SCU) is a traditional Chinese medicine used for the treatment of ischaemic cerebrovascular disease, but its clinic applications have been limited due to its poor water solubility, poor bioavailability and short half-life. In comparison with the conventional oral and intravenous administration, nasal administration may help targeting the drug more directly to brain. Thus, we proposed to employ a novel SCU-loaded HP-ß-CD/chitosan nanoparticles (CD/CS-SCU-NPs) to deliver SCU to brain through the nasal route. METHODS: CD/CS-SCU-NPs were prepared by an ionic cross-linking method. The NPs formulation was tested in vivo in C57BL mice. The concentrations of SCU in brain and plasma after intranasal and oral administration of the CD/CS-SCU-NPs and after intranasal administration of SCU solution (SCU-SL) were determined and brain targeting parameters were calculated. KEY FINDINGS: Compared to the intranasal administration of SCU-SL, intranasal and oral administration of the CD/CS-SCU-NPs increased accumulation of SCU in brain, indicating that CD/CS-SCU-NPs have obvious brain targeting advantage, although the advantage is more evident after intranasal administration. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from in-vivo study indicated that much higher SCU brain exposure was observed after intranasal administration of the CD/CS-SCU-NPs. Administration of CD/CS-SCU-NPs through the nasal route would have potential to treat ischemic cerebrovascular disease.

Enhancement of scutellarin oral delivery efficacy by vitamin B12-modified amphiphilic chitosan derivatives to treat type II diabetes induced-retinopathy.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic retinopathy is the most common complication in diabetic patients relates to high expression of VEGF and microaneurysms. Scutellarin (Scu) turned out to be effective against diabetes related vascular endothelial cell dysfunction. However, its clinical applications have been limited by its low bioavailability. In this study, we formulated and characterized a novel intestinal target nanoparticle carrier based on amphiphilic chitosan derivatives (Chit-DC-VB12) loaded with scutellarin to enhance its bioavailability and then evaluated its therapeutic effect in experimental diabetic retinopathy model. RESULTS: Chit-DC-VB12 nanoparticles showed low toxicity toward the human colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells and zebra fish within concentration of 250 µg/ml, owing to good biocompatibility of chitosan. The scutellarin-loaded Chit-DC-VB12 nanoparticles (Chit-DC-VB12-Scu) were then prepared by self-assembly in aqueous solution. Scanning electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering analysis indicated that the Chit-DC-VB12-Scu nanoparticles were spherical particles in the sizes ranging from 150 to 250 nm. The Chit-DC-VB12-Scu nanoparticles exhibited high permeation in Caco-2 cell, indicated it could be beneficial to be absorbed in humans. We also found that Chit-DC-VB12 nanoparticles had a high cellular uptake. Bioavailability studies were performed in Sprague-Dawley rats, which present the area under the curve of scutellarin of Chit-DC-VB12-Scu was two to threefolds greater than that of free scutellarin alone. Further to assess the therapeutic efficacy of diabetic retinopathy, we showed Chit-DC-VB12-Scu down-regulated central retinal artery resistivity index and the expression of angiogenesis proteins (VEGF, VEGFR2, and vWF) of retinas in type II diabetic rats. CONCLUSIONS: Chit-DC-VB12 nanoparticles loaded with scutellarin have better bioavailability and cellular uptake efficiency than Scu, while Chit-DC-VB12-Scu nanoparticles alleviated the structural disorder of intraretinal neovessels in the retina induced by diabetes, and it also inhibited the retinal neovascularization via down-regulated the expression of angiogenesis proteins. In conclusion, the Chit-DC-VB12 nanoparticles enhanced scutellarin oral delivery efficacy and exhibited potential as small intestinal target promising nano-carriers for treatment of type II diabetes induced-retinopathy.

Pharmacokinetic properties and drug interactions of apigenin, a natural flavone.

INTRODUCTION: Apigenin, a natural flavone, is widely distributed in plants such as celery, parsley and chamomile. It is present principally as glycosylated in nature. Higher intake of apigenin could reduce the risk of chronic diseases. It has gained particular interest in recent years as a beneficial, health-promoting agent with low intrinsic toxicity. Areas covered: This review summarizes and the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) properties of apigenin, and drug-drug interaction of apigenin. Expert opinion: Since apigenin is a bioactive plant flavone and is widely distributed in common food, its consumption through the diet is recommended. Apigenin-enriched drugs are better for some chronic diseases, but may affect animal and human health if present in the daily diet. Dietary or therapeutic apigenin has value as a good cellular regulator in cancer, especially cancers of the gastrointestinal tract. Due to apigenin's limitations on absorption and bioavailability, novel carriers would need to be developed to enhance the oral bioavailability of apigenin. Further research about its ADME properties and drug-drug interactions are needed before apigenin can be brought to clinical trials.

A review on the pharmacological effects of vitexin and isovitexin.

Vitexin and isovitexin are active components of many traditional Chinese medicines, and were found in various medicinal plants. Vitexin (apigenin-8-C-glucoside) has recently received increased attention due to its wide range of pharmacological effects, including but not limited to anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects. Isovitexin (apigenin-6-C-glucoside), an isomer of vitexin, generally purified together with vitexin, also exhibits diverse biological activities. Latest research has suggested that vitexin and isovitexin could be potential substitute medicines for diversity diseases, and may be adjuvants for stubborn diseases or health products. This review summarized recent findings on various pharmacological activities and associative signalling pathways of vitexin and isovitexin to provide a reference for future research and clinical applications.

Pharmacokinetic Comparison of Scutellarin and Paeoniflorin in Sham-Operated and Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Ischemia and Reperfusion Injury Rats after Intravenous Administration of Xin-Shao Formula.

Xin-Shao formula is a folk remedy widely used in China to prevent and cure stroke. Cerebral ischemic reperfusion (I/R) injury often takes place during the treatment of stroke. Information about the pharmacokinetic behavior of the remedy under cerebral I/R injury conditions is lacking. The present study aimed to compare the pharmacokinetic properties of scutellarin and paeoniflorin, two major bioactive components of Xin-Shao formula, under physiological state in cerebral I/R injury rats. Neurobehavioral dysfunction was evaluated and cerebral infarcted volume was measured in middle cerebral artery occlusion I/R injury (MCAO) rats. Plasma samples were collected at various time points after a single dose (intravenous, i.v.) of Xin-Shao formula. The levels of plasma scutellarin and paeoniflorin at the designed time points were determined by a UPLC-MS/MS method, and drug concentration versus time plots were constructed to estimate pharmacokinetic parameters. Increase in terminal elimination half-life (t1/2z) and mean residence time (MRT(0-t)) of scutellarin as well as elevation in area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve from 0 h to the terminal time point (AUC(0-t)) and maximum plasma drug concentration (Cmax) of paeoniflorin, along with decreased clearance of paeoniflorin and scutellarin as well as reduced apparent volume of distribution (Vz) of paeoniflorin, were observed in MCAO rats, compared with those in sham-operated animals. The elimination of scutellarin and paeoniflorin were reduced in cerebral I/R injury reduced rats.

Enhancing oral bioavailability using preparations of apigenin-loaded W/O/W emulsions: In vitro and in vivo evaluations.

We analyzed the physical properties and digestibility of apigenin-loaded emulsions as they passed through a simulated digestion model. As the emulsion passed through the simulated stages of digestion, the particle size and zeta potential of all the samples changed, except for the soybean oil-Tween 80 emulsion, in which zeta potential remained constant, through all stages, indicating that soybean oil-Tween 80 emulsions may have an effect on stability during all stages of digestion. Fluorescence microscopy was used to observe the morphology of the emulsions at each step. The in vivo pharmacokinetics revealed that apigenin-loaded soybean oil-Tween 80 emulsions had a higher oral bioavailability than did the orally administrated apigenin suspensions. These results suggest that W/O/W multiple emulsions formulated with soybean oil and tween 80 have great potential as targeted delivery systems for apigenin, and may enhance in vitro and in vivo bioavailability when they pass through the digestive tract.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Scutellarein Derivatives Based on Scutellarin Metabolic Mechanism In Vivo.

Three series of scutellarein derivatives have been designed and synthesized based on metabolic mechanism of scutellarin (1) in vivo. Their thrombin inhibition activities were tested through the analyzation of prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), thrombin time (TT), and fibrinogen (FIB). The antioxidant activities of these target products were assessed by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) assay and the ability to protect PC12 cells against H2 O2 -induced cytotoxicity, and their solubilities were evaluated by ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometer. The results showed that the two isopropyl groups substituted derivative (18c) demonstrated stronger anticoagulant activity, better water solubility, and good antioxidant activity compared with scutellarein (2), which warrants further development of 18c as a promising agent for ischemic cerebrovascular disease treatment.

Simultaneous determination of scutellarin and tetrahydropalmatine of Deng-yan granule in rat plasma by UFLC-MS/MS and its application to a pharmacokinetic study.

Deng-yan granule, consisting of Herba Erigerontis Breviscapi, Rhizoma Corydalis Yanhusuo and Radix Astragali Mongolici, is a widely used Traditional Chinese Medicine preparation for treatment of coronary heart disease. Scutellarin and tetrahydropalmatine are main active constituents in Herba Erigerontis Breviscapi and Rhizoma Corydalis Yanhusuo, and have been used as marker components for quality control of Deng-yan preparations. In order to make good and rational use of Deng-yan granule in the future, a rapid, sensitive and high throughput ultra-fast liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS) method was developed for the simultaneous determination of scutellarin and tetrahydropalmatine in rat plasma using rutin as internal standard (IS). The plasma samples were extracted by liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate after acidification and separated on a Shim-pack XR-ODS C18 column (75mm×3.0mm, 2.2µm) with a mobile phase consisting of methanol-0.1% formic acid water (50:50, v/v) at a flow rate of 0.4mL/min. Mass spectrometric detection was conducted on an API 3200 QTRAP mass spectrometry equipped with electrospray ionization source in positive ionization mode. Quantification was performed using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) by monitoring the fragmentation of m/z 463.2→287.1 for scutellarin, m/z 356.1→192.1 for tetrahydropalmatine and m/z 611.2→303.2 for IS, respectively. The linear range was 10-5000ng/mL for both scutellarin and tetrahydropalmatine with lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) of 10ng/mL. The intra- and inter-day precisions were below 12.2% for scutellarin and below 9.7% for tetrahydropalmatine in terms of relative standard deviation (RSD), and the accuracy was within ±9.1% for scutellarin and within ±11.2% for tetrahydropalmatine in terms of relative error (RE). Extraction recovery, matrix effect and stability were satisfactory in rat plasma. The validated method was successfully applied to a pharmacokinetic study of scutellarin and tetrahydropalmatine after oral administration of Deng-yan granule to rats.

Influence of the gastrointestinal microflora and efflux transporters on the absorption of scutellarin and scutellarein.

Scutellarin (SG) and its aglycone, Scutellarein (S), are flavonoids of therapeutic cardiocerebrovascular disease. SG was hydrolyzed by bacterial enzyme into S which was absorbed in the intestine. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of the microflora in the intestinal lumen and the efflux transporter of intestinal epithelial cells on the absorption process of SG and S. After oral administration of antibiotics in Sprague-Dawley rats, the reduced bacterial enzyme formation significantly hinders the absorption of SG, whereas scarcely that of S. The absorption study in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion revealed that S could be absorbed throughout the intestine of rats. The effective intestinal permeability of S in the jejunum was much lower than in the other sections of the GI tract. The efflux transporter promoted SG secretion into lumen from enterocytes, which hindered the absorption of both SG and S into the bloodstream. The efflux transporter protein inhibitor (verapamil, probenecid and reserpine) remarkably enhanced the absorption of S and the bioconversion of S into SG in both the rat intestine and Caco-2-monolayer models.

Pharmacokinetic interaction between scutellarin and valsartan in rats.

Scutellarin is the main effective constituent of breviscapine, a flavonoid mixture isolated from the dried whole plant of Erigeron breviscapus (Vant.) Hand-Mazz, and valsartan is used as an antihypertensive drug. These two drugs have already been clinically used together to treat diabetic nephropathy (DN) in China, and the combined medications showed some enhanced protection against DN. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential pharmacokinetic interaction between scutellarin and valsartan in rats. Breviscapine injection (20 mg x kg(-1), i.v.) and valsartan (15 mg x kg-, i.g.), either alone or together were given to 18 male Sprague-Dawley rats. Concentrations of scutellarin and valsartan were quantified by HPLC, and pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated by non-compartmental methods. We found that the pharmacokinetic parameters of scutellarin altered significantly after co-administration of oral valsartan. The plasma clearance (CL(p)) and the bile clearance (CL(b)) of scutellarin were reduced significantly in the presence of valsartan. After oral administration of valsartan with or without intravenous scutellarin, however, the pharmacokinetic parameters of valsartan were comparable. In conclusion, our data suggests that the concurrent use of valsartan reduces the biliary excretion of scutellarin, and this may be due to the inhibitory effect of valsartan on the biliary excretion of scutellarin mediated by Mrp2 (Multidrug resistance-associated protein 2).

Caecal absorption of vitexin-2-O-xyloside and its aglycone apigenin, in the rat.

The in vivo bioavailability of the flavone-C-glycosides has been little studied compared to their O-glycoside analogues, which are both more common in nature and considered more easily hydrolyzed than C-glycosides, by both enterocytes and gut microbiota. In this study, we used vitexin-2-O-xyloside (VOX), an apigenin-8-C-glucoside-2-O-xyloside, purified from seeds of Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris cicla), to investigate VOX absorption into portal blood compared to its aglycone, apigenin. We used a rat model in which we ligated the ileo- and colo-caecal junctions, then administered apigenin or VOX directly into the caecum. Blood samples were drawn from the portal vein at timed intervals over 40 min. The kinetic profile of appearance in portal blood of the compounds and their metabolites was evaluated by HPLC-ESI-MS. Apigenin was found in portal blood both as the aglycone and as an apigenin-glucuronide derivative. The VOX was found unchanged and as a reduced monoglycoside, which underwent glucuronidation. By collecting the bile, we confirmed that the liver received unchanged VOX, which was returned to the gut by enterohepatic recirculation for reabsorption from the ileum. The amount of apigenin and VOX remaining in the caecum accounted for ∼15% and ∼26%, respectively. These data show for the first time that the C-glycoside VOX is absorbed unchanged and undergoes enterohepatic recirculation in addition to hydrolysis to the monoglycoside, reduction and conjugation to form a bioavailable glucuronide.