Conflict experience and resolution underlying obedience to authority.

Definitions of obedience require the experience of conflict in response to an authority's demands. Nevertheless, we know little about this conflict and its resolution. Two experiments tested the suitability of the 'object-destruction paradigm' for the study of conflict in obedience. An experimenter instructed participants to shred bugs (among other objects) in a manipulated coffee grinder. In contrast to the demand condition, participants in the control condition were reminded of their free choice. Both received several prods if they defied the experimenter. Results show that participants were more willing to kill bugs in the demand condition. Self-reported negative affect was increased after instructions to destroy bugs relative to other objects (Experiments 1 and 2). In Experiment 2, compliant participants additionally showed an increase in tonic skin conductance and, crucially, self-reported more agency and responsibility after alleged bug-destruction. These findings elucidate the conflict experience and resolution underlying obedience. Implications for prominent explanations (agentic shift, engaged followership) are discussed.

"Decoding MH"-A de-stigmatization campaign in the Hong Kong Police Force.

Police officers are under high level of stress given the intense and emergent work nature. If left untreated, their mental wellbeing would be at risk and work performance compromised. However, mental health stigma is common among police officers and is perpetuated by factors like police cultures emphasizing toughness and self-reliance. In view of this, since 2016, the Hong Kong Police Force had launched a holistic campaign for Force members which was the first among law enforcement organizations in Hong Kong, aiming to reduce stigma, by enhancing mental health knowledge and decreasing negative attitudes and behaviors towards mental health issues. The programme incorporated standardised trainings of the Mental Health First Aid course with examples modified to the local police context, and psychoeducation via the use of digital medium and sharing by public figures. Positive feedback was received. It was foreseen that the campaign effects would increase Force members' awareness of their mental health, encourage help-seeking and facilitate officers' decision making when encountering crises in the community.

Encarceramento feminino: um debate entre criminologia e perspectivas feministas / Female incarceration: a debate between criminology and feminist perspectives / Encarcelamiento femenino: un debate entre la criminología y las perspectivas feministas

Este ensaio teórico-reflexivo tem como objetivo discutir sobre as contribuições dos estudos da criminologia e sua crítica para as diversas formas de aprisionamento feminino, e mais atualmente para o encarceramento em massa no sistema prisional, além de abrir espaço para o debate sobre as diferentes perspectivas feministas e as relações com os estudos criminológicos, sobretudo com os posicionamentos da chamada criminologia crítica. Reconhecem-se importantes avanços e conquistas feministas no debate sobre a estruturação masculinizada do direito penal e do seu fazer jurídico, mas também a manutenção de diversas formas de violência de gênero que configuram um sistema penal antropocêntrico, seletivo, racista e discriminatório. Indica-se a urgência de estudos interseccionais que considerem as particularidades e reinvindicações das mulheres no cárcere e suas formas de militância, sobretudo diante de população carcerária feminina composta majoritariamente por mulheres negras, pobres e periféricas. Faz-se visível a necessidade de uma análise dos fatores que atravessam o encarceramento feminino por uma ótica feminista plural, adequada às realidades que se estudam e atenta às múltiplas perspectivas que podem existir dentro do feminismo.(AU)

This theoretical-reflexive essay aims to discuss the contributions of criminological studies and their critique of the various forms of imprisonment of women, and more recently of mass incarceration in the prison system, in addition to opening space for the debate on the different feminist perspectives and their relations with criminological studies, especially with the positions of the so-called critical criminology. Important feminist advances and conquests are recognized in the debate about the masculinized structure of penal law and its legal practice, but also the maintenance of diverse forms of gender violence that configure an anthropocentric, selective, racist, and discriminatory penal system. It indicates the urgency of intersectional studies that consider the particularities and claims of women in prison and their forms of militancy, especially in the face of the female prison population composed mostly of black, poor, and peripheral women. The need for an analysis of the factors that cross women's imprisonment from a plural feminist perspective, adequate to the realities under study and attentive to the multiple perspectives that may exist within feminism, becomes visible.(AU)

Este ensayo teórico-reflexivo pretende discutir las aportaciones de los estudios criminológicos y su crítica a las distintas formas de encarcelamiento femenino, y más recientemente de encarcelamiento masivo en el sistema penitenciario, además de generar debate sobre las distintas perspectivas feministas y sus relaciones con los estudios criminológicos, especialmente con las posiciones de la Criminología Crítica. Se reconocen importantes avances y logros feministas en el debate sobre la estructuración masculinizada del derecho penal y su práctica jurídica, además del mantenimiento de diversas formas de violencia de género que configuran un sistema penal antropocéntrico, selectivo, racista y discriminatorio. Se necesitan estudios interseccionales que consideren las particularidades y reivindicaciones de las mujeres en prisión y sus formas de militancia, principalmente ante la población penitenciaria femenina compuesta mayoritariamente por mujeres negras, pobres y periféricas. Se hace evidente la necesidad de analizar los factores que inciden en el encarcelamiento femenino desde una perspectiva feminista plural, adecuada a las realidades que se estudian y atenta a las múltiples perspectivas que pueden existir dentro del feminismo.(AU)

FORENSIC AND LEGAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HYPNOSIS DURING A CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION.

The purpose of the article is, based on a comparative legal study of the general and distinctive features of the norms of criminal and criminal procedural legislation of Ukraine, Georgia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary, regarding the possible participation of a psychotherapist in conducting procedural actions aimed at collecting evidence for the crime committed, determine the feasibility and admissibility of the participation of a hypnologist to conduct hypnosis sessions with participants in criminal proceedings. The task is based on an analysis of the norms of criminal and criminal procedural legislation of a number of European countries, as well as taking into account the specifics of hypnotherapy as a branch of psychotherapy, the limitations of legal norms regarding psychotherapists (hypnologists) in the exercise of their professional duties and in attracting them for judicial - investigative actions to collect evidence, the unsettled nature of these legal positions - to outline ways to improve the norms of medical and legal legislation of European countries in this area. It has been established that the problem of realizing the right of the subject to full legal and medical protection during a forensic medical examination, as well as the implementation of the rights and obligations of an expert psychotherapist during the latter, is the lack of clear implementation in the criminal procedural norms of the states of the participation of a hypnologist during a forensic examination, investigative actions that are aimed at collecting evidence for a crime.It has been revealed that the requirements of international legal norms and certain specifics of the situation regarding the conduct of a forensic medical examination, as well as the lack of clearly defined legal norms for the participation of a psychotherapist in collecting evidence by immersing a participant in a criminal trial - a patient in a hypnotic sleep, dictate the need to make a number of changes in criminal procedural legislation not only of Ukraine, but also of the countries of the European Union, such as Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic. These medico-legal documentary "amendments" should be aimed at a clearer formulation of the definitions of the basic concepts and terms of engaging or prohibiting the participation of a hypnologist during forensic investigative actions that are aimed at obtaining evidence using hypnosis, such as a ban on engaging the latter is clearly provided for in the legislation of Georgia. Thus, these innovations in the legal sphere will act as a guarantor of the implementation of the right to human health, will serve as a "psychotherapeutic impetus" for eradicating cases of obtaining evidence in a case using hypnosis in the practical activities of law enforcement agencies, and will meet the basic international principles and requirements in the field of healthcare and law.

The collaborative development through multidisciplinary and advocate consensus of an accessible notice of rights for people with intellectual disabilities in police custody.

Background People with intellectual disabilities are over-represented in the criminal justice system. The United Nations' Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) enshrines a right to equal access to justice for persons with disabilities (Article 13, UNCRPD). Accessible information is a key aspect of exercising this right. Yet, many jurisdictions, including Ireland, are yet to develop accessible information for disabled people who may be arrested. Aims This paper describes the collaborative development through multidisciplinary and advocate consensus of an accessible (Easy -to- Read) Notice of Rights (ERNR) for people with intellectual disabilities in police custody in Ireland. Methods Guidelines developed by Ireland's representative organisation for people with intellectual disabilities and examples of international practice were used to develop a draft ERNR by the primary researcher in partnership with an expert from a representative organisation for people with intellectual disabilities. The ERNR was developed thereafter through two focus groups with a view to achieving consensus with a focus on accessibility, accuracy and layout. This included a multidisciplinary focus group with participants from a representative organisation for people with intellectual disabilities, psychology, speech and language therapy, the police force, public health, forensic psychiatry, mental health, law and, subsequently, a focus group of people with lived experience of intellectual disability. Results Progressive development of the ERNR resulted in incremental improvements in textual accuracy as well as the inclusion of more accessible language and imagery. Originality/value This is the first attempt at developing an easy-to-read document relating to the legal rights of suspects in police custody in Ireland and, accordingly, this procedural innovation promises to assist, not just persons with intellectual disabilities, but also those with limited literacy at the point of arrest. The methodology used in the preparation of the document, employing a focus group to achieve consensus with participation from both multiple disciplines and persons with an intellectual disability, is in harmony with the ethos of the UNCPRD. This methodology may usefully be employed by other member states that have ratified the Convention but have yet to develop accessible version of the legal rights and entitlements that extend to arrested persons under their domestic law.

Characterizing Arrests and Charges Among Individuals With Serious Mental Illnesses in Public-Sector Treatment Settings.

Objective: Individuals with serious mental illnesses are overrepresented in all facets of the legal system. State-level criminal histories of patients with serious mental illnesses were analyzed to determine the proportion who had been arrested and number of lifetime arrests and charges, associations of six variables with number of arrests, and the most common charges from individuals' first two arrests and most recent two arrests. Methods: A total of 240 patients were recruited at three inpatient psychiatric facilities and gave consent to access their criminal history. Information was extracted from Record of Arrest and Prosecution (RAP) sheets for lifetime arrests in Georgia. Results: A total of 171 (71%) had been arrested. Their mean±SD lifetime arrests were 8.6±10.1, and mean lifetime charges were 12.6±14.6. In a Poisson regression, number of arrests was associated with lower educational attainment, Black or African American race, the presence of a substance use disorder, the presence of a mood disorder, and female sex. Common early charges included marijuana possession, driving under the influence of alcohol, and burglary and shoplifting. Common recent charges included probation violations, failure to appear in court, officer obstruction­related charges, and disorderly conduct. Conclusions: Findings point to a need for policy and program development in the legal system (e.g., pertaining to charges such as willful obstruction of an officer), the mental health community (e.g., to ensure that professionals know about clients' legal involvement and can partner in strategies to reduce arrests), and social services sectors (to address charges, such as shoplifting, often related to material disadvantage).

Acceptability of a real-time notification of stress and access to self-help therapies among law enforcement officers.

BACKGROUND: Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are exposed to chronic stress throughout the course of their shift, which increases the risk of adverse events. Although there have been studies targeting LEO safety through enhanced training or expanded equipment provisions, there has been little attempt to leverage personal technology in the field to provide real-time notification of LEO stress. This study tests the acceptability of implementing of a brief, smart watch intervention to alleviate stress among LEOs. METHODS: We assigned smart watches to 22 patrol LEOs across two police departments: one suburban department and one large, urban department. At baseline, we measured participants' resting heart rates (RHR), activated their watches, and educated them on brief wellness interventions in the field. LEOs were instructed to wear the watch during the entirety of their shift for 30 calendar days. When LEO's heart rate or stress continuum reached the predetermined threshold for more than 10 min, the watch notified LEOs, in real time, of two stress reduction interventions: [1] a 1-min, guided breathing exercise; and [2] A Calm app, which provided a mix of guided meditations and mindfulness exercises for LEOs needing a longer decompression period. After the study period, participants were invited for semi-structured interviews to elucidate intervention components. Qualitative data were analyzed using an immersion-crystallization approach. RESULTS: LEOs reported three particularly useful intervention components: 1) a vibration notification when hearts rates remained high, although receipt of a notification was highly variable; 2) visualization of their heart rate and stress continuum in real time; and, 3) breathing exercises. The most frequently reported type of call for service when the watch vibrated was when a weapon was involved or when a LEO was in pursuit of a murder suspect/hostage. LEOs also recollected that their watch vibrated while reading dispatch notes or while on their way to work. CONCLUSIONS: A smart watch can deliver access to brief wellness interventions in the field in a manner that is both feasible and acceptable to LEOs.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Police Integration Into Assertive Community Treatment Teams.

OBJECTIVE: Assertive community treatment (ACT) teams provide outreach services to individuals coping with severe mental illness. Because such individuals are at increased risk for involvement with law enforcement, a model that integrates police officers into ACT teams (ACT-PI) was developed for ACT teams serving clients with or without forensic involvement. The goal of this study, conducted in British Columbia, was to evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of the ACT-PI model. METHODS: Qualitative semistructured interviews were conducted with 21 ACT-PI clients (in 2017) and 22 ACT-PI staff (in 2018). Thematic analyses identified key themes related to the benefits and drawbacks of officer integration into the ACT-PI model. RESULTS: Perceived benefits of police integration were opportunities for relationship building between officers and clients, improved safety, more holistic care due to embeddedness (i.e., effective interagency collaboration between police and health care providers), the prevention of future problems, and police officers' authority enhancing compliance. Perceived drawbacks included risk for legal consequences, stigma from police interaction, escalating distress of clients, low officer availability, and the risk for changing the nature of ACT teams. CONCLUSIONS: Participants reported that the model of officer integration into ACT-PI teams may improve both client and staff well-being. In some communities, and with certain precautions, ACT-PI may be a viable model for ACT teams serving clients with and clients without a history of forensic involvement.

Output of Electronic Muscle Stimulators: Physical Therapy and Police Models Compared.

INTRODUCTION: Both physical therapists and police officers use electrical muscle stimulation. The typical physical therapist unit is attached with adhesive patches while the police models use needle-based electrodes to penetrate clothing. There have been very few papers describing the outputs of these physical therapy EMS (electrical muscle stimulator) units. METHODS: We purchased 6 TENS/EMS units at retail and tested them with loads of 500 Ω, 2 kΩ, and 10 kΩ. RESULTS: For the typical impedance of 500 Ω, the EMS units delivered the most current followed by the electrical weapons; TENS units delivered the least current. At higher im-pedances (> 2 kΩ) the electrical weapons delivered more current than the EMS units, which is explained by the higher voltage-compliance of their circuits. Some multi channel EMS units deliver more calculated muscle stimula tion than the multi-channel weapons. CONCLUSION: Present therapeutic electrical muscle stimula-tors can deliver more current than present law-enforcement muscle stimulators.

Suggestibility and confabulation among individuals with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: A review for criminal justice, forensic mental health, and legal interviewers.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are conditions arising from prenatal alcohol exposure which results in a range of neurodevelopmental deficits in areas including cognition, memory, language, executive functioning, emotional regulation, and adaptive functioning. Deficits in various neurodevelopmental areas can range from mild to severe, depending on many factors including the quantity and timing of alcohol exposure during the prenatal development period. During interviews in criminal justice, forensic mental health, and legal contexts (e.g., criminal investigations, cross examination, victim interviews, interviews for lawsuits, forensic evaluations, pre-sentence investigations), deficits associated with FASD may elevate the risk of suggestibility and confabulation. These issues can result in negative jurisprudence-related outcomes, including impulsive Miranda rights waivers, incorrect assumptions of competency, inaccurate or incomplete information gathering, misinterpretation of intent, witness reliability issues, court ordered treatment completion problems, probation and parole violations, false confessions, and false accusations. The aim of the present article is to explain the context in which these issues can arise and provide criminal justice, forensic mental health, and legal professionals with key guidelines that can assist in minimizing suggestibility and confabulation when interviewing persons with FASD. We hope that the suggestions and strategies presented in this article will reduce potential obstructions of justice and enhance the quality of information obtained from individuals impacted by FASD. A brief discussion is also provided to identify additional research and training opportunities needed to clarify "best practices" for professionals tasked with evaluating the challenges facing this unique population.

The "appropriate adult": What they do and what they should do in police interviews with mentally disordered suspects.

BACKGROUND: In almost all countries worldwide, the first point of contact with the criminal justice system is with the police. A large proportion of these individuals may have vulnerabilities, such as mental health difficulties. Given the complexities associated with vulnerable suspects, such interviews may be compromised, which could lead to a miscarriage of justice. In England and Wales, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 1984 and its accompanying Codes of Practice lay down requirements for interviewing vulnerable suspects and provide for attendance of "appropriate adults" to support communication between police and the vulnerable suspect. To date, however, their role has been underresearched. AIMS/HYPOTHESES: To explore the role of appropriate adults in police interviews and test the hypotheses, first, that appropriate adults more commonly remain passive during interview than expected from guidance and, second, that any interventions are more likely than not to follow examples in current guidance. METHODS: Transcripts of police interviews conducted with suspects with possible mental disorder and an appropriate adult present (N = 27) were analysed using a specially developed coding framework. RESULTS: Appropriate adults were significantly more likely to remain passive than to intervene, even when current guidance would suggest intervention. When they did intervene, however, such interventions were significantly more likely than not to follow from guidance than the vulnerable suspect's needs. Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 1984. CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: In our sample, appropriate adults were not fulfilling their role as outlined in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 1984 and accompanying Codes of Practice; specifically, they appeared to know what to do but not when to do it. There is a heightened risk of a miscarriage of justice in such circumstances without improvements.

Interactive Versus Video-Based Training of Police to Communicate Syringe Legality to People Who Inject Drugs: The SHIELD Study, Mexico, 2015-2016.

Objectives. To assess how instructional techniques affect officers' intent to communicate syringe legality during searches in Tijuana, Mexico, where pervasive syringe confiscation potentiates risk of HIV and HCV among people who inject drugs (PWID) and of occupational needle-stick injury among police. Methods. Using the SHIELD (Safety and Health Integration in the Enforcement of Laws on Drugs) model, Tijuana police underwent training to encourage communication of syringe possession legality to PWID. Trainees received either passive video or interactive role-play exercise on safer search techniques. We used logistic regression to assess the training's impact on self-reported intent to communicate syringe legality by training type and gender. Results. Officers (n = 1749) were mostly men (86%) assigned to patrol (84%). After the training, intent to communicate the law improved markedly: from 20% to 39% (video group) and 20% to 58% (interactive group). Gender and training type significantly predicted intent to communicate syringe legality. Male and female officers' adjusted odds ratios in the interactive group were 5.37 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 4.56, 6.33) and 9.16 (95% CI = 5.88, 14.28), respectively, after the training. Conclusions. To more effectively persuade police to endorse harm reduction and occupational safety practices, police trainings should include interactive elements.

Correction Workers' Burnout and Outcomes: A Bayesian Network Approach.

The present study seeks to demonstrate how Bayesian Network analysis can be used to support Total Worker Health® research on correction workers by (1) revealing the most probable scenario of how psychosocial and behavioral outcome variables in corrections work are interrelated and (2) identifying the key contributing factors of this interdependency relationship within the unique occupational context of corrections work. The data from 353 correction workers from a state department of corrections in the United States were utilized. A Bayesian Network analysis approach was used to probabilistically sort out potential interrelations among various psychosocial and behavioral variables. The identified model revealed that work-related exhaustion may serve as a primary driver of occupational stress and impaired workability, and also that exhaustion limits the ability of correction workers to get regular physical exercise, while their interrelations with depressed mood, a lack of work engagement, and poor work-family balance were also noted. The results suggest the importance of joint consideration of psychosocial and behavioral factors when investigating variables that may impact health and wellbeing of correction workers. Also, they supported the value of adopting the Total Worker Health® framework, a holistic strategy to integrate prevention of work-related injury and illness and the facilitation of worker well-being, when considering integrated health protection and promotion interventions for workers in high-risk occupations.

Memory at the Sharp End: The Costs of Remembering With Others in Forensic Contexts.

In many applied contexts where accurate and reliable information informs operational decision-making, emergency response resource allocation, efficient investigation, judicial process, and, ultimately, the delivery of justice, the costs of unfettered conversational remembering can be high. To date, research has demonstrated that conversations between co-witnesses in the immediate aftermath of witnessed events and co-witness retellings of witnessed events often impair both the quality and quantity of information reported subsequently. Given the largely negative impact of conversational remembering on the recall of both individual witnesses and groups of witnesses in this context, this review explores the reasons why these costs occur, the conditions under which costs are exacerbated, and how, in practical terms, the costs can be reduced in order to maximize the accuracy and completeness of witness accounts.

The Opioid Epidemic: Moving Toward an Integrated, Holistic Analytical Response.

In many jurisdictions, public safety and public health entities are working together to enhance the timeliness and accuracy of the analytical characterization and toxicology testing of novel synthetic opioids. The improved sharing and early detection of these analytical data are intended to inform surveillance, interdiction efforts, patient intervention and treatment, all of which are critical to curbing the opioid epidemic. Forensic practitioners working to identify novel synthetic opioids struggle to provide timely results when encountering new or unknown substances, such as the fentanyl analogs. These compounds, which mimic heroin in pharmacologic effect but can be far more potent, are inconsistently present in chemical identification libraries, and are currently largely unavailable as reference materials for analytical comparison. Additionally, federal, state and local governments as well as nongovernmental organizations require potency, toxicity and potential-for-abuse data to evaluate the potential health risks of emerging drug threats. Subsequent scheduling efforts and criminal prosecutions also require these thorough drug characterization studies. Pilot programs have demonstrated that early communication of real-time drug toxicity and analytical data significantly impacts the successful response to emerging opioids. High-quality, real-time, national-level data on chemical composition, toxicological test data, drug toxicity and overdoses, and analysis of seized materials by law enforcement are needed to track drug trends. However, the USA still lacks a national system to coordinate and communicate toxicology, medical and medical examiner and coroner data with the broader medical and law enforcement communities. Opportunities to address these gaps as well as recent advancements collected through interagency efforts and technical workshops in the toxicology and analytical chemistry communities are presented here. Opportunities for partnership, increased communication and expanding best practices to move toward an integrated, holistic analytical response are also explored.

Reducing Lethal Force Errors by Modulating Police Physiology.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to test an intervention modifying officer physiology to reduce lethal force errors and improve health. METHODS: A longitudinal, within-subjects intervention study was conducted with urban front-line police officers (n = 57). The physiological intervention applied an empirically validated method of enhancing parasympathetic engagement (ie, heart rate variability biofeedback) during stressful training that required lethal force decision-making. RESULTS: Significant post-intervention reductions in lethal force errors, and in the extent and duration of autonomic arousal, were maintained across 12 months. Results at 18 months begin to return to pre-intervention levels. CONCLUSION: We provide objective evidence for a physiologically focused intervention in reducing errors in lethal force decision-making, improving health and safety for both police and the public. Results provide a timeline of skill retention, suggesting annual retraining to maintain health and safety gains.

Health Implications of an Immigration Raid: Findings from a Latino Community in the Midwestern United States.

Immigration raids exemplify the reach of immigration law enforcement into the lives of Latino community members, yet little research characterizes the health effects of these raids. We examined the health implications of an immigration raid that resulted in multiple arrests and deportations and occurred midway through a community survey of a Latino population. We used linear regression following principal axis factoring to examine the influence of raid timing on immigration enforcement stress and self-rated health. We controlled for age, sex, relationship status, years in the county in which the raid occurred, children in the home, and nativity. 325 participants completed the survey before the raid and 151 after. Completing the survey after the raid was associated with higher levels of immigration enforcement stress and lower self-rated health scores. Findings indicate the negative impact of immigration raids on Latino communities. Immigration discussions should include holistic assessments of health.

The Basis of Structure/Function Claims of Nutraceuticals.

In the United States, as in most of the world, there are large numbers of nutraceuticals that are sold and which people take to boost their immune response. There are, in addition, almost an equal number of products sold to reduce allergies. However, very few consumers, and indeed physicians, are aware of what a structure/function claim is. Structure/function claims are labeling claims that can be used to describe the potential effects of a dietary ingredient or similar substance on the structure or function of the human body. This category of claims was created by legislation contained in the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act. The intent was to supply consumers with reasonably substantiated information that would allow them to make educated choices about their diet and health. They were not intended to have the same weight and substantiation as the claims made for conventional prescription pharmaceuticals. Rather, they were proposed to fill the gap between consumer desire for over-the-counter supplements and foods, and rigorous and generally more potent and potentially "toxic" prescription medications. The legally mandated disclaimer, stating that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not evaluated the structure/function claim, often leads to misinterpretation. While there should be a biologic premise underlying the claim, there is not an absolute requirement for a conventional rigorous placebo-controlled dose response trial. While this may not be the clinical standard that a typical scientific oriented society might desire, it reflects the attempts of the FDA to find common grounds and to allow consumers to use products that are generally considered as safe based on historical use and biologic comparisons. The logic of, indeed need for, structure/function claims is straightforward; however, of equal importance is that nutraceuticals should be properly labeled, have accuracy in their ingredients, be free of contamination, be safe, and have a reasonable body of data that supports their efficacy.

An integrated workplace mental health intervention in a policing context: Protocol for a cluster randomised control trial.

BACKGROUND: In this paper, we present the protocol for a cluster-randomised trial to evaluate the implementation and effectiveness of a workplace mental health intervention in the state-wide police department of the south-eastern Australian state of Victoria. n. The primary aims of the intervention are to improve psychosocial working conditions and mental health literacy, and secondarily to improve mental health and organisational outcomes. METHODS/DESIGN: The intervention was designed collaboratively with Victoria Police based on a mixed methods pilot study, and combines multi-session leadership coaching for the senior officers within stations (e.g., Sergeants, Senior Sergeants) with tailored mental health literacy training for lower and upper ranks. Intervention effectiveness will be evaluated using a two-arm cluster-randomised trial design, with 12 police stations randomly assigned to the intervention and 12 to the non-intervention/usual care control condition. Data will be collected from all police members in each station (estimated at >20 per station). Psychosocial working conditions (e.g., supervisory support, job control, job demands), mental health literacy (e.g., knowledge, confidence in assisting someone who may have a mental health problem), and mental health will be assessed using validated measures. Organisational outcomes will include organisational depression disclosure norms, organisational cynicism, and station-level sickness absence rates. The trial will be conducted following CONSORT guidelines. Identifying data will not be collected in order to protect participant privacy and to optimise participation, hence changes in primary and secondary outcomes will be assessed using a two-sample t-test comparing summary measures by arm, with weighting by cluster size. DISCUSSION: This intervention is novel in its integration of stressor-reduction and mental health literacy-enhancing strategies. Effectiveness will be rigorously evaluated, and if positive results are observed, the intervention will be adapted across Victoria Police (total employees ~16,500) as well as possibly in other policing contexts, both nationally and internationally. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials: ISRCTN82041334. Registered 24th July, 2014.

Enforcing the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes for Better Promotion of Exclusive Breastfeeding: Can Lessons Be Learned?

Exclusive breastfeeding, one of the best natural resources, needs protection and promotion. The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (the Code), which aims to prevent the undermining of breastfeeding by formula advertising, faces implementation challenges. We reviewed frequently overlooked challenges and obstacles that the Code is facing worldwide, but particularly in Southeast Asia. Drawing lessons from various countries where we work, and following the example of successful public health interventions, we discussed legislation, enforcement, and experiences that are needed to successfully implement the Code. Successful holistic approaches that have strengthened the Code need to be scaled up. Community-based actions and peer-to-peer promotions have proved successful. Legislation without stringent enforcement and sufficient penalties is ineffective. The public needs education about the benefits and ways and means to support breastfeeding. It is crucial to combine strong political commitment and leadership with strict national regulations, definitions, and enforcement. National breastfeeding committees, with the authority to improve regulations, investigate violations, and enforce the laws, must be established. Systematic monitoring and reporting are needed to identify companies, individuals, intermediaries, and practices that infringe on the Code. Penalizing violators is crucial. Managers of multinational companies must be held accountable for international violations, and international legislative enforcement needs to be established. Further measures should include improved regulations to protect the breastfeeding mother: large-scale education campaigns; strong penalties for Code violators; exclusion of the formula industry from nutrition, education, and policy roles; supportive legal networks; and independent research of interventions supporting breastfeeding.