Biological Activity of Selected Natural and Synthetic Terpenoid Lactones.

Terpenoids with lactone moieties have been indicated to possess high bioactivity. Certain terpenoid lactones exist in nature, in plants and animals, but they can also be obtained by chemical synthesis. Terpenoids possessing lactone moieties are known for their cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antimalarial activities. Moreover, one terpenoid lactone, artemisinin, is used as a drug against malaria. Because of these abilities, there is constant interest in new terpenoid lactones that are both isolated and synthesized, and their biological activities have been verified. In some cases, the activity of the terpenoid lactone is specifically connected to the lactone moiety. Recent works have revealed that new terpenoid lactones can demonstrate such functions and are thus considered to be potential active agents against many diseases.

Artemisinin-derived antimalarial endoperoxides from bench-side to bed-side: Chronological advancements and future challenges.

According to WHO World Malaria Report (2018), nearly 219 million new cases of malaria occurred and a total no. of 435 000 people died in 2017 due to this infectious disease. This is due to the rapid spread of parasite-resistant strains. Artemisinin (ART), a sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide isolated from traditional Chinese herb Artemisia annua, has been recognized as a novel class of antimalarial drugs. The 2015 "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine" was given to Prof Dr Tu Youyou for the discovery of ART. Hence, ART is termed as "Nobel medicine." The present review article accommodates insights from the chronological advancements and direct statistics witnessed during the past 48 years (1971-2019) in the medicinal chemistry of ART-derived antimalarial endoperoxides, and their clinical utility in malaria chemotherapy and drug discovery.

Artemisinin and its derivatives; ancient tradition inspiring the latest therapeutic approaches against malaria.

Artemisinin (ART) is an endoperoxide sesquiterpene lactone, commonly used in the treatment of malaria. Although it was isolated from Artemisia annuaL., a plant widely applied in Chinese Traditional Medicine, its mechanism of action remains uncertain and its clinical use is still limited due to its low solubility, its poor bioavailability and short in vivo half-life. Over time, several studies have been aimed towards the discovery of potent ART derivatives that could overcome clinical drawbacks. In this review, we focus on the multifaced aspects of ART and on the efforts spent to improve its pharmacological profile that so far culminated in the discovery of more effective drugs. Lastly, we outline the new perspectives in the ART-derivatives scenario.

Literally Green Chemical Synthesis of Artemisinin from Plant Extracts.

Active pharmaceutical ingredients are either extracted from biological sources-where they are synthesized in complex, dynamic environments-or prepared in stepwise chemical syntheses by reacting pure reagents and catalysts under controlled conditions. A combination of these two approaches, where plant extracts containing reagents and catalysts are utilized in intensified chemical syntheses, creates expedient and sustainable processes. We illustrate this principle by reacting crude plant extract, oxygen, acid, and light to produce artemisinin, a key active pharmaceutical ingredient of the most powerful antimalarial drugs. The traditionally discarded extract of Artemisia annua plants contains dihydroartemisinic acid-the final biosynthetic precursor-as well as chlorophyll, which acts as a photosensitizer. Efficient irradiation with visible light in a continuous-flow setup produces artemisinin in high yield, and the artificial biosynthetic process outperforms syntheses with pure reagents.

Role of 2-Dimensional Autocorrelation Descriptors in Predicting Antimalarial Activity of Artemisinin and its Aanalogues: A QSAR Study.

BACKGROUND: Malaria, one of the World's biggest billers' is on the schedule for biomedical research and public health policies. The introduction of the artemisinin, a Chinese traditional drug from Artemisia annua is a revolution in the treatment of malaria. Artemisinin-based combination treatment (ACT) is considered to be the best strategy for uncomplicated Falciparum malaria. The presence of 1,2,4-trioxane system in artemisinin is responsible for its antimalarial activity. METHODS: In this study, twenty-nine analogues of artemisinin were taken into account for QSAR studies along with artemisinin. The most active analogue of artemisinin 21 was energy minimized. All the structures were prepared from the active conformer 21 and energy was minimized to the stable state using MMFF94 force field using ChemBioDraw-12. Genetic Algorithm is used to decide the descriptors best required for the model generation. The test set and training set division were done by using hierarchal clustering module available with NCSS statistical software. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The antimalarial activity of the artemisinin and its substituted analogues has been analyzed through the multiple linear regression (MLR) using various physiochemical and structural descriptors obtained from PADEL software. The models were prepared using the Sigma Plot version 11. The calculated 2D autocorrelation descriptors and the MLR model suggest that artemisinin and its analogues hold the scope in the optimization of antimalarial activity.

Preparation and in vivo evaluation of anti-plasmodial properties of artemisinin-loaded PCL-PEG-PCL nanoparticles.

PURPOSE: Artemisinin (ART) has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-amyloid, and anti-malarial effects, but its application is limited due to its low water solubility and poor oral bioavailability. In this study, the bioavailability, water solubility, and anti-plasmodial property of ART were improved by PCL-PEG-PCL tri-block copolymers. METHODS: The structure of the copolymers was characterized by 1H NMR, FT-IR, DSC, and GPC techniques. ART was encapsulated within micelles by a single-step nano-precipitation method, leading to the formation of ART-loaded PCL-PEG-PCL micelles. The obtained micelles were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The in vivo anti-plasmodial activity of ART-loaded micelles was measured against Plasmodium berghei infected Swiss albino mice. RESULTS: The results showed that the zeta potential of ART-loaded micelles was about -8.37 mV and the average size was 91.87 nm. ART was encapsulated into PCL-PEG-PCL micelles with a loading capacity of 19.33 ± 0.015% and encapsulation efficacy of 87.21 ± 3.32%. In vivo anti-plasmodial results against P. berghei showed that multiple injections of ART-loaded micelles could prolong the circulation time and increase the therapeutic efficacy of ART. CONCLUSION: These results suggested that PCL-PEG-PCL micelles would be a potential carrier for ART for the treatment of malaria.

Natural and Semi synthetic Antimalarial Compounds: Emphasis on the Terpene Class.

Malaria is one of the most important tropical diseases since more than 40% of the world population is at risk. This disease is endemic to more than 100 nations and remains one of the main leading causes of death in children less than five years of age worldwide. Natural product-derived compounds have played a major role in drug discovery, often as prototypes to obtain more active semi synthetic derivatives. Antimalarial pharmacotherapy is a significant example of plant-derived medicines, such as quinine and artemisinin. This review highlights studies on terpenes and their semi synthetic derivatives from natural sources with antimalarial activity reported in the literature during eleven years (2002-2013). A total of 114 compounds are found among terpenes and their semi synthetic derivatives. Cytotoxicity of the compounds is also found in this review. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of the terpenes addressed are discussed based on seven well established descriptors, which provide a useful source for the elaboration of a terpene library of antimalarial compounds.

A continuous-flow process for the synthesis of artemisinin.

Isolation of the most effective antimalarial drug, artemisinin, from the plant sweet wormwood, does not yield sufficient quantities to provide the more than 300 million treatments needed each year. The high prices for the drug are a consequence of the unreliable and often insufficient supply of artemisinin. Large quantities of ineffective fake drugs find a market in Africa. Semisynthesis of artemisinin from inactive biological precursors, either dihydroartemisinic acid (DHAA) or artemisinic acid, offers a potentially attractive route to increase artemisinin production. Conversion of the plant waste product, DHAA, into artemisinin requires use of photochemically generated singlet oxygen at large scale. We met this challenge by developing a one-pot photochemical continuous-flow process for the semisynthesis of artemisinin from DHAA that yields 65 % product. Careful optimization resulted in a process characterized by short residence times. A method to extract DHAA from the mother liquor accumulated during commercial artemisinin extractions, a material that is currently discarded as waste, is also reported. The synthetic continuous-flow process described here is an effective means to supplement the limited availability of artemisinin and ensure increased supplies of the drug for those in need.

Qinghaosu (artemisinin): chemistry and pharmacology.

Qinghaosu and its derivatives are widely used in the world as a new generation of antimalarial drug. Up to now, some important progresses of Qinghaosu research have been made, including synthesis of new qinghaosu derivatives and analogs, investigation on their bioactivities and mode of actions. The present review briefly describes these efforts made by researchers in China, particularly in this Institute.

Discovery of artemisinin-glycolipid hybrids as anti-oral cancer agents.

Novel artemisinin-glycolipid hybrids were directly synthesized from 12ß (C-C)-type deoxoartemisinin and glycolipid and exhibited exceptional in vitro anticancer activity, particularly against the oral carcinoma cancer cell lines, respectively. The artemisinin-glycolipid hybrids, with effective concentrations under 20 µM, demonstrated better anticancer activity than either artemisinin or glycolipid alone and showed five times more anti-oral cancer activity than either cisplatin or paclitaxel.

Design, synthesis and antitumor activity of novel artemisinin derivatives using hybrid approach.

In an attempt to develop potent and selective anti-tumor agents, two novel series of artemisinin-chalcone hybrids were designed, synthesized and screened for their antitumor activities against HT-29, A549, MDA-MB-231, HeLa and H460 cell lines in vitro. Nearly all of the tested compounds showed significantly increased anti-tumor activity compared with the corresponding dihydroartemisinin (DHA). Most of the title compounds displayed good selectivity toward HT-29 and HeLa cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 0.09 to 0.85 µM. Among them, the most promising compound 9c (IC50) range of 0.09-0.93 µM) was 10.5- to 70-times more active than DHA (IC50 range of 5.6-15.6 µM) respectively.

Synthesis and anti-cancer activity of covalent conjugates of artemisinin and a transferrin-receptor targeting peptide.

Artemisinin, a natural product isolated from Artemisia annua L., shows a unique anti-cancer activity by an iron dependent mechanism. Artemisinin was covalently conjugated to a transferrin-receptor targeting peptide, HAIYPRH that binds to a cavity on the surface of transferrin receptor. This enables artemisinin to be co-internalized with receptor-bound transferrin. The iron released from transferrin can activate artemisinin to generate toxic radical species to kill cells. The artemisinin-peptide conjugates showed potent anti-cancer activity against Molt-4 leukemia cells with a significantly improved cancer/normal cells selectivity.

Making artemisinin.

The possibilities for the production of the antimalarial artemisinin by biological and chemical means are explored. These include native biosynthesis, genetic modification of Artemisia annua and other plants, engineering of microbes, total and partial chemical synthesis and combinations of the above.

In vitro inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii by four new derivatives of artemisinin.

Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is medically important and distributed worldwide. Currently available medications are limited in terms of efficacy and side effects. We synthesized novel, nonacetal, hydrolytically stable derivatives of artemisinin and showed that they inhibit the replication of Toxoplasma gondii in cell culture.

Artemisia annua L. (Asteraceae) trichome-specific cDNAs reveal CYP71AV1, a cytochrome P450 with a key role in the biosynthesis of the antimalarial sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin.

Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide derived from the plant Artemisia annua, forms the basis of the most important treatments of malaria in use today. In an effort to elucidate the biosynthesis of artemisinin, an expressed sequence tag approach to identifying the relevant biosynthetic genes was undertaken using isolated glandular trichomes as a source of mRNA. A cDNA clone encoding a cytochrome P450 designated CYP71AV1 was characterized by expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and shown to catalyze the oxidation of the proposed biosynthetic intermediates amorpha-4,11-diene, artemisinic alcohol and artemisinic aldehyde. The identification of the CYP71AV1 gene should allow for the engineering of semi-synthetic production of artemisinin in appropriate plant or microbial hosts.

[Extraction of artemisinin and synthesis of its derivates artesunate and artemether]. / Extraction de l'artémisinine et synthèse de ses dérivés artésunate et artéméther.

Artemisinin is extracted from Artemisia annua, a shrub also known as sweet wormwood that was used in traditional medicine in Asia for more than 1500 years. Recent studies in numerous malarious zones have demonstrated the effectiveness of artemisinin and have reported no evidence of the resistance now associated with almost all other antimalarials on the market. Despite its remarkable activity, artermisinin is not accessible to many patients due to high cost. This situation confronts all players in the fight against malaria with the urgent need to develop a simple process to produce massive supplies of artemisinin and its derivative at an affordable price. The purpose of the study described here was to develop a simple, cost-effective method that could be used by all professionals to extract artemisinin and transform it into artesunate or artemether. Artemisinin was extracted with dichloromethane and purified on the basis of variations in polarity and in the hydrophile/lipophile balance of solvents. Transformation into artesunate was a two-step process involving reduction to dihydroartemisinin using diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL) followed by esterification using succinic anhydride. Artemether was obtained from dihydroartemisinin using boron trifluoride. Extraction using dichloromethane presents several advantages. Since dichloromethane is not explosive it can be safely transported and used for extraction on farms where Artemisia annua is grown. Evaporation and recovery of dichloromethane is relatively easy so that it can be re-used. These advantages result in a significant decrease in purchasing and shipping costs. Extraction on the farm eliminates the expense and facilities that would otherwise be required to transport and store leaves at the laboratory (250 kg of leaves yield 4 to 5 kg of raw artemisinin extract that yields approximately 1 kg of pure artemisinin). The low-cost process described here is feasible for any pharmaceutical laboratory including those in developing countries.

The therapeutic potential of semi-synthetic artemisinin and synthetic endoperoxide antimalarial agents.

Artemisinin derivatives such as artesunate, dihydroartemisinin and artemether are playing an increasing role in the treatment of drug-resistant malaria. They are the most potent antimalarials available, rapidly killing all asexual stages of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum. This review highlights the recent developments in the area of improved second-generation semi-synthetic artemisinin derivatives and fully synthetic antimalarial endoperoxide drugs. In pursuit of synthetic analogues of the artemisinins, one of the major challenges for chemists in this area has been the non-trivial development of techniques for the introduction of the peroxide bridge into candidate drugs. Although chemical research has enabled chemists to incorporate the endoperoxide 'warhead' into synthetic analogues of artemisinin, significant drawbacks with many candidates have included comparatively poor antimalarial activity, non-stereoselective syntheses and chemical approaches that are not readily amenable to scale up. However, very recent progress with synthetic 1,2,4-trioxolanes provides a new benchmark for future medicinal chemistry efforts in this area.

Antimalarial activities of (+)-deoxoartemisitene and its novel C-11, 13 derivatives.

(+)-Deoxoartemisitene and its C-11, 13 derivatives were synthesized from artemisinic acid via a short and regiospecific process and several derivatives show 10-20 times more in vitro antimalarial activities against Plasmodium falciparum than artemisinin.