Eurotium cristatum Fermented Loose Dark Tea Ameliorates Cigarette Smoke-Induced Lung Injury by MAPK Pathway and Enhances Hepatic Metabolic Detoxification by PXR/AhR Pathway in Mice.

Cigarette smoke- (CS-) induced oxidative stress and inflammation in the lung are serious health problems. Primary and reprocessed tea products contain multiple antioxidants that have been reported to protect the lung against CS-induced injury. However, the beneficial effects of Eurotium cristatum fermented loose dark tea (ECT) and Eurotium cristatum particle metabolites (ECP) on CS-induced lung injury and its potential hepatic metabolic detoxification are still unclear. Therefore, sixty mice were randomly divided into six equal groups. CS-exposed mice were prevented or treated with ECP or ECT infusions for 12 or 8 weeks to determine the antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory and potential metabolic detoxification of ECT and ECP. Thirty-six mice were randomly divided into six equal groups to observe the effects on hepatic metabolic detoxification by replacing daily drinking water with ECT. Results showed that CS significantly decreased the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and upregulated the expressions of malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, and IL-1ß in serum. These adverse effects were modulated by ECP and ECT. In addition, ECT upregulated the mRNA expression of pregnane X receptor (PXR) and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) in the liver on daily free drinking ECT mice group. Western blot analysis further revealed that in CS-exposed mice, ECP and ECT significantly decreased the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in the lung but upregulated the protein expressions of PXR and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in the liver. Overall, our findings demonstrated that ECT and ECP protected against lung injury induced by CS via MAPK pathway and enhanced hepatic metabolic detoxification via PXR and AhR pathways. Therefore, daily intake of ECT and ECP can potentially protect against CS-induced oxidative and inflammatory injuries.

Black aspergilli in Brazilian onions: From field to market.

The occurrence of black aspergilli in onions has been reported as frequent, and this group of fungi harbors potentially toxigenic species. In addition, Aspergillus niger has been reported as the causative agent of black mold rot, an important postharvest disease that causes damage throughout the world. Brazil stands out as one of the world's largest onion producers. However, few studies have been conducted to investigate the mycobiota in Brazilian onions. For this reason, we investigated the mycobiota of 48 market (n = 25) and field (n = 23) onion bulb samples. Nineteen soil samples were collected from the same fields and evaluated. In field onions and soil samples, Penicillium spp. was the prevalent fungal group, whereas in market samples A. section Nigri was the most frequent group. Due to the taxonomic complexity of this group, species identification was supported by phylogenetic data (CaM gene). A. welwitschiae was the most prevalent species in market samples. Black aspergillus strains were evaluated for fumonisin B2 (FB2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) production. Overall, 53% and 2.2% of the strains produced FB2 and OTA, respectively. The occurrence of FB2 and OTA was also investigated in onion bulb samples but none showed contamination with these mycotoxins.

Evaluating posaconazole dosing regimens of the different formulations against Aspergillus spp. in adults: a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis using Monte Carlo simulation.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of various posaconazole dosing regimens of the different formulations against Aspergillus spp. in adults. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted using pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters and pharmacodynamic (PD) data to determine the probability of target attainment (PTA) and cumulative fraction of response (CFR) in terms of area under the concentration-time curve/minimum inhibition concentration (AUC/MIC) targets of posaconazole. According to the results of the PTA analysis, currently recommended clinical dosing regimens of the delayed-release tablet and intravenous (i.v.) solution were appropriate in prophylaxis against Aspergillus spp. with MICs ≤ 0.125 µg/mL. However, only high-dose regimens of the delayed-release tablet could achieve the target PTA in the treatment against Aspergillus spp. at an MIC of 0.125 µg/mL. Furthermore, the CFR was calculated for each dosing regimen. For the oral suspension, none of the simulated dosing regimens was effective against Aspergillus spp. For the delayed-release tablet and i.v. solution, the recommended dosing regimens were effective for prophylaxis of invasive fungal infections by four Aspergillus spp. (Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus terreus). However, these recommended dosing regimens were only effective for the treatment of A. terreus infection. Therefore, the high-dose regimen (200 mg oral every 12 h) of the delayed-release tablet should be recommended to achieve optimal therapeutic efficacy against four Aspergillus spp. (A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. nidulans and A. terreus). These PK/PD-based simulations rationalise and optimise the dosing regimens of the different posaconazole formulations against Aspergillus spp. in adults.

Multistarter fermentation of glutinous rice with Fu brick tea: Effects on microbial, chemical, and volatile compositions.

A higher fermentation efficiency was achieved, using multistarter fermentation of glutinous rice supplemented with Fu brick tea (FGR-FBT), than when using traditional fermentation. The effects of multistarter fermentation on the microbial, chemical, and volatile compositions were determined. When FBT was incorporated during glutinous rice fermentation, increased population of yeasts and fungi, as well as enhanced α-amylase, proteinase and ß-glucosidase activities, were observed. Specific fungi were isolated and identified as Aspergillus spp., which are known to secrete extracellular enzymes that modify the chemical properties, including ethanol levels, pH, total acids, and total soluble solids. The aroma profile of fermented glutinous rice was studied in the absence and presence of FBT, using HS-SPME-GC-MS and the electronic-nose. This analysis indicated that 35 characteristic volatile compounds were only found in FGR-FBT. The results show that FBT can be added during the fermentation of food products to enhance microbial biotransformation and modify flavour metabolism.

Recent trends in the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and mechanisms of resistance in clinical Aspergillus species: A general review with a special focus on the Middle Eastern and North African region.

Globally, more than billion people suffer from fungal infections each year. The early diagnosis of aspergillosis is mandatory for successful treatment outcome. As careful testing takes time, epidemiological surveillance is crucial to guide individual patient therapy and to promote a high standard of health care. In this paper, we first present current trends in the epidemiology and antifungal susceptibility patterns of Aspergillus spp. in Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) countries in order to support infectious disease specialists and health workforces in this geographic area to treat adequately patients with aspergillosis. Then we discuss the existing literature data regarding the available diagnostic tools and antifungal resistance mechanisms of Aspergillus spp. Although a limited number of studies were reviewed here, the currently available data show that Aspergillus infections are not negligible in the MENA region, and that the emergence of antifungal resistance is a growing health issue, especially among immunocompromised patients.

Mycoremediation: a treatment for heavy metal-polluted soil using indigenous metallotolerant fungi.

Bioleaching of heavy metals from industrial contaminated soil using metallotolerant fungi is the most efficient, cost-effective, and eco-friendly technique. In the current study, the contaminated soil samples from Hattar Industrial Estate revealed a total lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) concentration of 170.90 mg L-1 and 26.66 mg L-1, respectively. Indigenous metallotolerant fungal strains including Aspergillus niger M1, Aspergillus fumigatus M3, Aspergillus terreus M6, and Aspergillus flavus M7 were isolated and identified by pheno- and genotyping. A. fumigatus and A. flavus of soil sample S1 showed higher efficiency for Pb removal (99.20% and 99.30%, respectively), in SDB medium. Likewise, A. niger and A. terreus of soil sample S2 showed higher efficiency for Hg removal (96% and 95.50%, respectively), in YPG medium. Furthermore, the maximum uptake efficiency for Pb removal (8.52 mg g-1) from soil sample S1 was noticed for A. fumigatus in YPG medium, while the highest uptake efficiency (4.23 mg g-1) of A. flavus M2 strain was observed with CYE medium. Similarly, the maximum uptake efficiency of 0.41 mg g-1 and 0.44 mg g-1 for Hg removal from soil sample S2 was found for A. niger and A. terreus strains, respectively, in CYE medium. Thus, in order to address the major issue of industrial waste pollution, indigenous fungal strains A. fumigatus (M1) and A. terreus (M7), isolated in this study, could be used (ex situ or in situ) to remediate soils contaminated with Pb and Hg.

Revealing the influence of microbiota on the quality of Pu-erh tea during fermentation process by shotgun metagenomic and metabolomic analysis.

Multispecies microbial community in natural solid-state fermentation (SSF) is crucial for the formation of Chinese Pu-erh tea's unique quality. However, the association between microbiota and tea quality are still poorly understood. Herein, shotgun metagenomic and metabolomic analysis showed that significant variations in composition of microbiota, collective functional genes, and flavour compounds occurred during SSF process. Furthermore, the formation pathways of the dominant flavours including theabrownin, methoxy-phenolic compound, alcohol and carvone were proposed. Moreover, biological interaction networks analysis among functional core microbiota, functional genes, and dominant flavours indicated Aspergillus was the main flavour-producing microorganism in the early SSF, while many other genera including Bacillus, Rasamsonia, Lichtheimia, Debaryomyces were determined as the functional core microorganism for flavours production in the late SSF. This study provides a perspective for bridging the gap between the microbiota and quality in Pu-erh tea, and benefited for further optimizing production efficiency and product quality.

Biodegradation of caffeine by whole cells of tea-derived fungi Aspergillus sydowii, Aspergillus niger and optimization for caffeine degradation.

BACKGROUND: Pu-erh tea is a traditional Chinese tea and produced by natural solid-state fermentation. Several studies show that the natural microbiota influence caffeine level in pu-erh tea. Our previous research also found that the caffeine declined significantly (p < 0.05) in the fermentation, which suggested that the caffeine level could be influenced by specific strains. The purpose of this study was to isolate and identify microorganisms for caffeine degradation, and this research explored the degradation products from caffeine and optimal condition for caffeine degradation. RESULTS: 11 Fungi were isolated from pu-erh tea fermentation and 7 strains could survive in caffeine solid medium. Two superior strains were identified as Aspergillus niger NCBT110A and Aspergillus sydowii NRRL250 by molecular identification. In the substrate tests with caffeine, A. niger NCBT110A could use caffeine as a potential carbon source while glucose is absent, A. sydowii NRRL250 could degrade 600 mg/L caffeine completely in a liquid medium. During the degradation product analysis of A. sydowii NRRL250, theophylline and 3-methlxanthine were detected, and the level of theophylline and 3-methlxanthine increased significantly (p < 0.05) with the degradation of caffeine. The single factor analysis showed that the optimum conditions of caffeine degradation were 1) substrate concentration of 1200 mg/L, 2) reaction temperature at 30 °C, and 3) pH of 6. In the submerged fermentation of tea infusion by A. sydowii NRRL250, 985.1 mg/L of caffeine was degraded, and 501.2 mg/L of theophylline was produced. CONCLUSIONS: Results from this research indicate that Aspergillus sydowii NRRL250 was an effective strain to degrade caffeine. And theophylline and 3-methlxanthine were the main caffeine degradation products.

Identification of Aspergillus tubingensis in a primary skin infection.

OBJECTIVE: Aspergillus section Nigri comprises a group of related species that include Aspergillus niger, A. welwitschiae, A. carbonarius, A. brasiliensis and A. tubingensis. Some of these species are morphologically very similar to A. niger but exhibit different patterns of susceptibility to antifungal agents; such is the case for A. tubingensis. Therefore, when diagnosing aspergillosis, it is important to identify the pathogen at the species level. This study aimed to identify the species of an Aspergillus spp. isolate (MM-82) obtained from a patient with a dermatosis localized to the right leg. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The MM-82 isolate was examined for macro- and microscopic morphology, conidia size and thermotolerance, and a phylogenetic analysis of a benA gene segment was performed for molecular identification. Susceptibility to antifungals was determined using antifungal microdilution according to the methodology of European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (EUCAST). RESULTS: Based on its phenotypic characteristics and the phylogenetic analysis of the sequence of a benA gene segment, the MM-82 isolate was identified as A. tubingensis. This fungus did not show resistance to antifungal agents commonly used for treatment. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that A. tubingensis can cause skin infection; this constitutes the first report of a case of aspergillosis caused by A. tubingensis in Mexico.

Optimization of Voriconazole Therapy for the Treatment of Invasive Fungal Infections in Adults.

Therapeutic concentrations of voriconazole in invasive fungal infections (IFIs) are ensured using a drug monitoring approach, which relies on attainment of steady-state pharmacokinetics. For voriconazole, time to reach steady state can vary from 5-7 days, not optimal for critically ill patients. We developed a population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model-based approach to predict doses that can maximize the net benefit (probability of efficacy-probability of adverse events) and ensure therapeutic concentrations, early on during treatment. The label-recommended 200 mg voriconazole dose resulted in attainment of targeted concentrations in ≥80% patients in the case of Candida spp. infections, as compared to only 40-50% patients, with net benefit ranging from 5.8-61.8%, in the case of Aspergillus spp. infections. Voriconazole doses of 300-600 mg were found to maximize the net benefit up to 51-66.7%, depending on the clinical phenotype (due to CYP2C19 status and pantoprazole use) of the patient and type of Aspergillus infection.

Determination and production of antimicrobial compounds by Aspergillus clavatonanicus strain MJ31, an endophytic fungus from Mirabilis jalapa L. using UPLC-ESI-MS/MS and TD-GC-MS analysis.

Endophytic fungi associated with medicinal plants are reported as potent producers of diverse classes of secondary metabolites. In the present study, an endophytic fungi, Aspergillus clavatonanicus strain MJ31, exhibiting significant antimicrobial activity was isolated from roots of Mirabilis jalapa L., was identified by sequencing three nuclear genes i.e. internal transcribed spacers ribosomal RNA (ITS rRNA), 28S ribosomal RNA (28S rRNA) and translation elongation factor 1- alpha (EF 1α). Ethyl acetate extract of strain MJ31displayed significant antimicrobial potential against Bacillus subtilis, followed by Micrococccus luteus and Staphylococcus aureus with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 0.078, 0.156 and 0.312 mg/ml respectively. In addition, the strain was evaluated for its ability to synthesize bioactive compounds by the amplification of polyketide synthase (PKS) and non ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) genes. Further, seven antibiotics (miconazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole, ampicillin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, and rifampicin) were detected and quantified using UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. Additionally, thermal desorption-gas chromatography mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) analysis of strain MJ31 showed the presence of 28 volatile compounds. This is the first report on A. clavatonanicus as an endophyte obtained from M. jalapa. We conclude that A. clavatonanicus strain MJ31 has prolific antimicrobial potential against both plant and human pathogens and can be exploited for the discovery of new antimicrobial compounds and could be an alternate source for the production of secondary metabolites.

Decatamariic acid, a new mitochondrial respiration inhibitor discovered by pesticidal screening using drug-sensitive Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

A new decalin, decatamariic acid, was isolated from a cultured broth of the fungus Aspergillus tamarii FKI-6817. Its absolute configuration was elucidated by NMR and electronic circular dichroism. Decatamariic acid (10 µM) elicited ~50% inhibition of the ATP production in mitochondria isolated from wild-type Saccharomyces cerevisiae without affecting the activities of respiratory enzymes. The action manner of this compound may be interesting as a possible seed for new pesticides.

Comparative genomic and transcriptomic analyses of the Fuzhuan brick tea-fermentation fungus Aspergillus cristatus.

BACKGROUND: Aspergillus cristatus is the dominant fungus involved in the fermentation of Chinese Fuzhuan brick tea. Aspergillus cristatus is a homothallic fungus that undergoes a sexual stage without asexual conidiation when cultured in hypotonic medium. The asexual stage is induced by a high salt concentration, which completely inhibits sexual development. The taxon is therefore appropriate for investigating the mechanisms of asexual and sexual reproduction in fungi. In this study, de novo genome sequencing and analysis of transcriptomes during culture under high- and low-osmolarity conditions were performed. These analyses facilitated investigation of the evolution of mating-type genes, which determine the mode of sexual reproduction, in A. cristatus, the response of the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway to osmotic stimulation, and the detection of mycotoxins and evaluation of the relationship with the location of the encoding genes. RESULTS: The A. cristatus genome comprised 27.9 Mb and included 68 scaffolds, from which 10,136 protein-coding gene models were predicted. A phylogenetic analysis suggested a considerable phylogenetic distance between A. cristatus and A. nidulans. Comparison of the mating-type gene loci among Aspergillus species indicated that the mode in A. cristatus differs from those in other Aspergillus species. The components of the HOG pathway were conserved in the genome of A. cristatus. Differential gene expression analysis in A. cristatus using RNA-Seq demonstrated that the expression of most genes in the HOG pathway was unaffected by osmotic pressure. No gene clusters associated with the production of carcinogens were detected. CONCLUSIONS: A model of the mating-type locus in A. cristatus is reported for the first time. Aspergillus cristatus has evolved various mechanisms to cope with high osmotic stress. As a fungus associated with Fuzhuan tea, it is considered to be safe under low- and high-osmolarity conditions.

Efficacy of different caffeine concentrations on growth and ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus species.

UNLABELLED: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of different caffeine concentrations (0-4%) on (i) lag phase prior to growth, (ii) growth rates and (iii) ochratoxin A (OTA) production by strains from the Aspergillus section Circumdati and Aspergillus section Nigri groups, isolated from coffee, when grown on a conducive medium at 0·98 water activity and 30°C. The lag phases prior to growth increased with caffeine concentration. A strain of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus carbonarius were the most sensitive to caffeine with growth being inhibited by <1% caffeine. For strains of Aspergillus westerdijkiae, Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus steynii, although growth was inhibited significantly, some growth (10-15% of controls) occurred in 4% caffeine. OTA production was significantly inhibited by only 0·5% caffeine for strains of A. westerdijkiae, A. niger and A. carbonarius. For A. steynii at least 1·5% caffeine was required to inhibit OTA production. In contrast, for the strain of A. ochraceus there was a stimulation of OTA at 3% with a reduction at 4% caffeine. These results are discussed in the context of the different concentrations of caffeine found in Arabica and Robusta coffee and the development of minimization strategies. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Arabic (0·6%) and Robusta coffee (4%) have significantly different amounts of endogenous caffeine. The growth of six ochratoxigenic fungi which contaminate coffee with ochratoxin A (OTA) had differential tolerance/sensitivity to concentrations of caffeine in vitro in this range. However, low concentrations of caffeine (<0·5%) was inhibitory to OTA production. These results are discussed in the context of the potential for using such information for the design of minimization strategies to control mycotoxin production in such products.

Role of nutrients and illuminance in predicting the fate of fungal mediated petroleum hydrocarbon degradation and biomass production.

Biodegradation and biomass production are affected by numerous environmental factors including pH, oxygen availability and presence of pollutants. The present study, for the first time, elucidated the effects of nutrients and light on mycodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in diesel oil. Seven fungal strains (Aspergillus terreus FA3, Aspergillus niger FA5, Aspergillus terreus FA6, Penicillium chrysogenum FP4, Aspergillus terreus FP6, Aspergillus flavus FP10, and Candida sp. FG1) were used for hydrocarbon degradation under static conditions, in four combinations of nutrient media and illuminance for 45 days. Highest degradation was achieved by Aspergillus terreus FA6 and Candida sp. FG1 under both conditions of light and dark, with nutrient deprived HAF (Hydrocarbon adopted fungi) broth. Under HAF/Dark diesel oil degradation by FA6 and FG1 was 87.3% and 84.3% respectively, while under HAF/Light both FA6 and FG1 performed 84.3% biodegradation. The highest biomass was produced by Aspergillus flavus FP10 in PDB (Potato dextrose broth)/Dark (109.3 mg). Fungal degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons was negatively affected by the presence of other simpler-to-degrade carbon sources in the medium. The biomass production was enhanced by improved nutrient availability and diminished by illuminance.

Culture and molecular identification of fungal contaminants in edible bird nests.

Widespread food poisoning due to microbial contamination has been a major concern for the food industry, consumers and governing authorities. This study is designed to determine the levels of fungal contamination in edible bird nests (EBNs) using culture and molecular techniques. Raw EBNs were collected from five house farms, and commercial EBNs were purchased from five Chinese traditional medicine shops (companies A-E) in Peninsular Malaysia. The fungal contents in the raw and commercial EBNs, and boiled and unboiled EBNs were determined. Culturable fungi were isolated and identified. In this study, the use of these methods revealed that all EBNs had fungal colony-forming units (CFUs) that exceeded the limit set by Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM) for yeast and moulds in EBNs. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the number of types of fungi isolated from raw and commercial EBNs, but no significant difference in the reduction of the number of types of fungi after boiling the EBNs (p > 0.05). The types of fungi isolated from the unboiled raw EBNs were mainly soil, plant and environmental fungi, while the types of fungi isolated from the boiled raw EBNs, unboiled and boiled commercial EBNs were mainly environmental fungi. Aspergillus sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Neurospora sp. and Penicillum sp. were the most common fungi isolated from the unboiled and boiled raw and commercial EBNs. Some of these fungi are mycotoxin producers and cause opportunistic infections in humans. Further studies to determine the mycotoxin levels and methods to prevent or remove these contaminations from EBNs for safe consumption are necessary. The establishment and implementation of stringent regulations for the standards of EBNs should be regularly updated and monitored to improve the quality of the EBNs and consumer safety.

Isolation and identification of toxigenic and non-toxigenic fungi in samples of medicinal plants from the market / Isolamento e identificação de fungos toxigênicos e não toxigênicos em amostras plantas medicinais do comércio

ABSTRACT: The consumption of preparations of medicinal plants has been increasing during the last decades in occidental societies. The presence of toxigenic fungi in a plant product may represent a potential risk of contamination, because of aflatoxins and ochratoxins. In this study, 12 samples of medicinal plants were analyzed in relation to the level of fungal contamination, and the presence of producers of ochratoxin A and aflatoxins was assessed by visualization of fungi using a cromatovisor in coconut milk. Most of the species found belong to the genus Cladosporium, Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium. Species producing ochratoxin A were present in 2 samples (16.7%), Melissa and Hibiscus. Species producing aflatoxin were found in samples of Jacaranda decurrens (8.33%). This study suggests that herbs, if stored improperly, can provide the growth of fungi and should be examined before consumption.

RESUMO: O consumo das plantas medicinais vem aumentando nas últimas décadas nas sociedades ocidentais, porém, a presença de fungos toxigênicos nestas plantas pode representar um risco em potencial de contaminação devido à produção de aflatoxinas e ocratoxinas. Neste trabalho, 12 amostras de plantas medicinais foram analisadas em relação ao nível de contaminação por fungos, enquanto a presença de produtores de ocratoxina A e aflatoxinas foi avaliada pela visualização em cromatovisor dos fungos em meio de leite de coco. A maioria das espécies encontradas pertence aos gêneros Cladosporium, Fusarium, Aspergillus e Penicillium. Espécies produtoras de ocratoxina A estavam presentes em 2 amostras (16,7%), Melissa e Hibisco. Espécies produtoras de aflatoxina foram encontradas na amostra de Carobinha (8,33%). Este trabalho sugere que as ervas, sendo armazenadas inadequadamente, proporcionam o crescimento de fungos e, por isso, estes devem ser examinados antes do consumo.

Treatment of infections by cryptic Aspergillus species.

The best treatment for patients with invasive aspergillosis caused by cryptic Aspergillus species remains uncertain, mainly due to the limited clinical data that have been published so far. In face of this limitation, patients should be treated with standard first-line therapy for invasive aspergillosis, with therapy being modified according to in vitro susceptibility testing. In this review, we summarize the importance of cryptic Aspergillus species in modern medicine, including their prevalence, methods for detection and response to antifungal drugs.

Invasion of Solanum tuberosum L. by Aspergillus terreus: a microscopic and proteomics insight on pathogenicity.

BACKGROUND: Aspergillus terreus is one of the most harmful filamentous fungal pathogen of humans, animals and plants. Recently, researchers have discovered that A. terreus can cause foliar blight disease in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). We used light and scanning electron microscopy, and performed proteomics analysis in an attempt to dissect the invasion process of A. terreus in this important crop. RESULTS: Microscopic study revealed that invasion of leaf tissue is marked by rapid germination of A. terreus phialidic conidia (PC) by 4 h after inoculation. By 8 h after inoculation, primary germ tubes from PC differentiated into irregular protuberance, often displayed stomata atropism, and failed to penetrate via the epidermal cells. Colonization of leaf tissues was associated with high rate of production of accessory conidia (AC). These analyses showed the occurrence of a unique opposing pattern of AC, tissue-specific and produced on melanized colonizing hyphae during the infection of leaf tissue. A significant proteome change hallmarked by differential expression of class I patatin, lipoxygenase, catalase-peroxidase complex, and cysteine proteinase inhibitor were observed during tuber colonization. These proteins are often involved in signal transduction pathways and crosstalk in pathogenic responses. CONCLUSION: A. terreus abundantly produced AC and multipolar germinating PC to invade potato leaf tissue. Additionally, A. terreus differentially induced enzymes in potato tuber during colonization which facilitates rapid disease development.