The Development and Evaluation of the Kinesthetic Motor Imagery of Pelvic Floor Muscle Contraction Questionnaire (KMI-PFQ) in Spanish Women.

Practitioners have begun using motor imagery (MI) for preventing and treating some pelvic floor disorders. Due to requirements for imagining before performing a MI intervention and because there are few instruments available for assessing this specific ability in the pelvic floor musculature, we sought to develop and test a new MI questionnaire, the Kinesthetic Motor Imagery of Pelvic Floor Muscle Contraction Questionnaire (KMI-PFQ). We focused in this study on the development and analysis of the instrument's factorial structure and internal reliability in a participant sample of 162 healthy Spanish women (M age = 20.1, SD = 2.2 years). We developed and evaluated the KMI-PFQ's psychometric properties, finding it to have good internal consistency, with Cronbach's α = .838, ω coefficient = .839, and an intraclass correlation coefficient = .809, with two factors ("ability" and "mental effort") explaining 58.36% of response variance. The standard error of measurement was 3.58, and the minimal detectable change was 9.92. No floor or ceiling effects were identified. There was also good convergent validity as seen by statistically significant positive correlations between KMI-PFQ scores and the revised-Movement Image Questionnaire and Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire. There were no statistically significant correlations between KMI-PFQ scores and the Orientation to Life Questionnaire. The KMI-PFQ is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring kinesthetic ability to feel/imagine pelvic floor muscle contractions in healthy Spanish women.

Visual and kinesthetic motor imagery in adults with different degrees of self-reported motor coordination difficulties.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) involves difficulties in performing coordinated movements with fine and/or gross motor skills deficits. Several studies showed that DCD is characterized by motor imagery deficits as well. Here we investigated in neurotypical adults (N = 334) the relationships between the ease of imaging two main motor imagery components, that is the visual and the kinesthetic one, self-reported motor coordination difficulties and handwriting speed. Self-reported motor difficulties were measured by the Adult Developmental Co-ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC) and scores were used to distinguish three groups: participants at risk of DCD (with both relevant childhood and current motor coordination difficulties); with motor coordination difficulties (relevant current but not childhood difficulties); without motor coordination difficulties (neither current nor childhood difficulties). The main results showed more kinesthetic and visual imagery difficulties in participants at risk of DCD than in those both with and without motor coordination difficulties. Interestingly, the relationships between the two imagery components and motor difficulties were different in the three groups, depending on: 1) the developmental phase (childhood or adulthood) to which motor coordination difficulties referred, and 2) the point of view (self or other), from which images were judged. Instead, no relationship was found between imagery abilities and handwriting speed. Thus, a nuanced pattern of the ease of imaging motor imagery emerged in adults with different degrees of self-reported motor coordination difficulties. These findings could be relevant for the assessment of people candidate to undergo a motor imagery training.

Brief Visual Deprivation Effects on Brain Oscillations During Kinesthetic and Visual-motor Imagery.

It is widely recognized that opening and closing the eyes can direct attention to external or internal stimuli processing. This has been confirmed by studies showing the effects of changes in visual stimulation changes on cerebral activity during different tasks, e.g., motor imagery and execution. However, an essential aspect of creating a mental representation of motion, such as imagery perspective, has not yet been investigated in the present context. Our study aimed to verify the effect of brief visual deprivation (under eyes open [EO] and eyes closed [EC] conditions) on brain wave oscillations and behavioral performance during kinesthetic imagery (KMI) and visual-motor imagery (VMI) tasks. We focused on the alpha and beta rhythms from visual- and motor-related EEG activity sources. Additionally, we used machine learning algorithms to establish whether the registered differences in brain oscillations might affect motor imagery brain-computer interface (MI-BCI) performance. The results showed that the occipital areas in the EC condition presented significantly stronger desynchronization during VMI tasks, which is typical for enhanced visual stimuli processing. Furthermore, the stronger desynchronization of alpha rhythms from motor areas in the EO, than EC condition confirmed previous effects obtained during real movements. It was also found that simulating movement under EC/EO conditions affected signal classification accuracy, which has practical implications for MI-BCI effectiveness. These findings suggest that shifting processing toward external or internal stimuli modulates brain rhythm oscillations associated with different perspectives on the mental representation of movement.

Consistent under-reporting of task details in motor imagery research.

Motor Imagery is a subject of longstanding scientific interest. However, critical details of motor imagery protocols are not always reported in full, hampering direct replication and translation of this work. The present review provides a quantitative assessment of the prevalence of under-reporting in the recent motor imagery literature. Publications from the years 2018-2020 were examined, with 695 meeting the inclusion criteria for further examination. Of these studies, 64% (445/695) did not provide information about the modality of motor imagery (i.e., kinesthetic, visual, or a mixture of both) used in the study. When visual or mixed imagery was specified, the details of the visual perspective to be used (i.e., first person, third person, or combinations of both) were not reported in 24% (25/103) of studies. Further analysis indicated that studies using questionnaires to assess motor imagery reported more information than those that did not. We conclude that studies using motor imagery consistently under-report key details of their protocols, which poses a significant problem for understanding, replicating, and translating motor imagery effects.

Reliability and validity of the Japanese movement imagery questionnaire-revised second version.

OBJECTIVE: Developing a Japanese version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised Second Version (MIQ-RS) is essential for widespread evaluation and treatment based on motor imagery in physically disabled persons and patients in rehabilitation. This study aimed to investigate the reliability and validity of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised Second Version (MIQ-RS), which assesses motor imagery ability, by translating it into Japanese. RESULTS: This study enrolled twenty healthy participants (10 men and 10 women, mean age 21.17 ± 1.10 years). Reliability was examined for internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was used to examine the criterion-related validity of the MIQ-RS and the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ-20). Results showed that Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the MIQ-RS were 0.81 and 0.82 for visual and kinesthetic imagery, respectively. Significant positive correlations were found between each visual and kinesthetic imagery score, and each total on the MIQ-RS and KVIQ-20 scores (r = 0.73, p < 0.01; r = 0.84, p < 0.01; r = 0.80, p < 0.01, respectively). This study suggests that the Japanese version of the MIQ-RS is a reliable and valid method of assessing motor imagery ability.

Neural Activity During Imagery Supports Three Imagery Abilities as Measured by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3.

Self-report and neural data were examined in 14 right-handed college-age males screened from a pool of 200 to verify neural activity during imagery and that the neural activity (area of brain) varies as a function of the imagery type. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data collected during real-time imagery of the three Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 abilities indicated frontal areas, motor areas, and cerebellum active during kinesthetic imagery, motor areas, and superior parietal lobule during internal visual imagery, and parietal lobule and occipital cortex during external visual imagery. Central and imagery-specific neural patterns were found providing further biological validation of kinesthetic, internal visual, and external visual complementing results on females. Next, research should (a) compare neural activity between male participants screened by self-reported imagery abilities to determine if good imagers have more efficient neural networks than poor imagers and (b) determine if there is a statistical link between participants' neural activity during imagery and self-report Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 scores.

Decoding of Motor Imagery Involving Whole-body Coordination.

The present study investigated whether different types of motor imageries can be classified based on the location of the activation peaks or the multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and compared the difference between visual motor imagery (VI) and kinesthetic motor imagery (KI). During fMRI scanning sessions, 25 participants imagined four movements included in the Motor Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R): knee lift, jump, arm movement, and waist bend. These four imagined movements were then classified based on the peak location or the patterns of fMRI signal values. We divided the participants into two groups based on whether they found it easier to generate VI (VI group, n = 10) or KI (KI group, n = 15). Our results show that the imagined movements can be classified using both the location of the activation peak and the spatial activation patterns within the sensorimotor cortex, and MVPA performs better than the activation peak classification. Furthermore, our result reveals that the KI group achieved a higher MVPA decoding accuracy within the left primary somatosensory cortex than the VI group, suggesting that the modality of motor imagery differently affects the classification performance in distinct brain regions.

Kinesthetic motor-imagery training improves performance on lexical-semantic access.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of Motor Imagery (MI) training on language comprehension. In line with literature suggesting an intimate relationship between the language and the motor system, we proposed that a MI-training could improve language comprehension by facilitating lexico-semantic access. In two experiments, participants were assigned to a kinesthetic motor-imagery training (KMI) group, in which they had to imagine making upper-limb movements, or to a static visual imagery training (SVI) group, in which they had to mentally visualize pictures of landscapes. Differential impacts of both training protocols on two different language comprehension tasks (i.e., semantic categorization and sentence-picture matching task) were investigated. Experiment 1 showed that KMI training can induce better performance (shorter reaction times) than SVI training for the two language comprehension tasks, thus suggesting that a KMI-based motor activation can facilitate lexico-semantic access after only one training session. Experiment 2 aimed at replicating these results using a pre/post-training language assessment and a longer training period (four training sessions spread over four days). Although the improvement magnitude between pre- and post-training sessions was greater in the KMI group than in the SVI one on the semantic categorization task, the sentence-picture matching task tended to provide an opposite pattern of results. Overall, this series of experiments highlights for the first time that motor imagery can contribute to the improvement of lexical-semantic processing and could open new avenues on rehabilitation methods for language deficits.

Relationship between the vividness of motor imagery and physical function in patients with subacute hemiplegic stroke: a cross-sectional preliminary study.

PURPOSE: The study aimed to clarify whether the vividness of motor imagery is related to lower limb function and walking ability in patients with hemiplegic stroke. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was a cross-sectional preliminary study. The subjects were 15 patients with hemiplegic stroke. The vividness of motor imagery was assessed using the kinesthetic and visual imagery questionnaire. The kinesthetic imagery (KI) involves the sensation of one's own movement, whereas the visual imagery (VI) involves the imagination of a third-person performing the self-movement. Their physical functions were assessed using the Brunnstrom recovery stage, stroke impairment assessment set, 10-m maximum walking speed test, and functional independence measure. KI and VI were compared using the t test. Correlation analysis was performed between KI or VI and various variables as well as between the motor imagery gap (difference between KI and VI) and various variables. RESULTS: KI was significantly lower than VI (p < .01). KI was correlated not only with lower limb function (r = 0.68) but also with walking speed (r = -0.64). The motor imagery gap was correlated with hip joint function (r = -0.53). CONCLUSIONS: KI and motor imagery gap were associated with lower limb function and walking ability.

Correlation between kinesthetic motor imagery of an amputated limb and phantom limb pain.

BACKGROUND: Phantom limb pain (PLP) is a frequent painful sensation in amputees, and motor imagery (MI) is a useful approach for the treatment of this type of pain. However, it is not clear regarding the best MI modality for PLP. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the PLP and MI modality in upper limb amputees. STUDY DESIGN: Observational study. METHODS: Eleven patients who underwent unilateral upper limb amputation participated in this study. The MI modality (kinesthetic and visual) and PLP intensity were evaluated using the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ)-20 and a visual analog scale. MI ability was also assessed during the hand mental rotation task. We examined the correlation between MI modalities, ability, and pain intensity. RESULTS: The total KVIQ kinesthetic score was negatively correlated with pain intensity (r = -0.71, P < 0.01): the more vivid the kinesthetic imagery, the weaker the pain. In particular, the reduction in pain intensity was associated with strong kinesthetic imagery of opposing movements of the deficient thumb (r = -0.81, P < 0.01). The KVIQ visual score and MI ability were not associated with pain intensity. CONCLUSIONS: Our data showed that the reduction of PLP could be associated with the kinesthetic modality of MI but not with visual modality or MI ability. In other words, it was suggested that the more vivid the sensation of moving muscles and joints in the defect area, the lower the PLP intensity. To reduce PLP, clinicians may prefer interventions using the kinesthetic modality.

Neurofeedback-guided kinesthetic motor imagery training in Parkinson's disease: Randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Parkinson's disease (PD) causes difficulty with maintaining the speed, size, and vigor of movements, especially when they are internally generated. We previously proposed that the insula is important in motivating intentional movement via its connections with the dorsomedial frontal cortex (dmFC). We demonstrated that subjects with PD can increase the right insula-dmFC functional connectivity using fMRI-based neurofeedback (NF) combined with kinesthetic motor imagery (MI). The current study is a randomized clinical trial testing whether NF-guided kinesthetic MI training can improve motor performance and increase task-based and resting-state right insula-dmFC functional connectivity in subjects with PD. METHODS: We assigned nondemented subjects with mild PD (Hoehn & Yahr stage ≤ 3) to the experimental kinesthetic MI with NF (MI-NF, n = 22) and active control visual imagery (VI, n = 22) groups. Only the MI-NF group received NF-guided MI training (10-12 runs). The NF signal was based on the right insula-dmFC functional connectivity strength. All subjects also practiced their respective imagery tasks at home daily for 4 weeks. Post-training changes in 1) task-based and resting-state right insula-dmFC functional connectivity were the primary imaging outcomes, and 2) MDS-UPDRS motor exam and motor function scores were the primary and secondary clinical outcomes, respectively. RESULTS: The MI-NF group was not significantly different from the VI group in any of the primary imaging or clinical outcome measures. The MI-NF group reported subjective improvement in kinesthetic body awareness. There was significant and comparable improvement only in motor function scores in both groups (secondary clinical outcome). This improvement correlated with NF regulation of the right insula-dmFC functional connectivity only in the MI-NF group. Both groups showed specific training effects in whole-brain functional connectivity with distinct neural circuits supporting kinesthetic motor and visual imagery (exploratory imaging outcome). CONCLUSIONS: The functional connectivity-based NF regulation was unsuccessful, however, both kinesthetic MI and VI practice improved motor function in our cohort with mild PD.

Convergent validity and sex invariant factor structure of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 - Second version (MIQ-3S): Healthy, young adult reference data.

Aligned with the approach that established the factor structure of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3), this study extended the two-factor structure of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire - Revised Second version (MIQ-RS). The extension involves assessment of both internal and external visual imagery abilities along with kinesthetic imagery ability. Participants (N = 396) completed the new Movement Imagery Questionnaire - 3 Second Version (MIQ-3S) along with the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2 (VMIQ-2) which measure the same three imagery abilities. Alpha coefficients and between scale Spearman correlations for internal, external, and kinesthetic abilities indicated items were internally consistent (α > 0.87) and established convergent validity (r > 0.69), respectively. MIQ-3S scale means ranged from 5.56 (SD = 1.10) to 5.98 (SD = 0.84), with no differences by sex. The three scales were not multicolinear as intra-scale correlations ranged from 0.47 to 0.61, supporting the three abilities were related, but separate constructs. A multi-trait multimethod confirmatory factor analysis (MTMM CFA), with sex invariance, was conducted to confirm the 3-factor structure of the MIQ-3S. Results from 396 healthy male (n = 200) and female (n = 196) adult college-aged students (M = 21.91, SD = 2.37) indicated a correlated-traits correlated-uniqueness model provided the best fit to the data (CFI = 0.99; SRMR = 0.05; RMSEA = 0.03), while displaying sex invariance. These findings provide baseline data on college-aged, healthy adult participants providing reference data to those investigating imagery abilities among injured populations and practitioners interested in tracking individuals in rehabilitation.

Motor imagery and action observation following immobilization-induced hypoactivity: A narrative review.

BACKGROUND: In sports, the risk of pathology or event that leads to an injury, a cessation of practice or even to an immobilization is high. The subsequent reduction of physical activity, or hypoactivity, induces neural and muscular changes that adversely affect motor skills and functional motor rehabilitation. Because the implementation of physical practice is difficult, if not impossible, during and immediately following injury or immobilization, complementary techniques have been proposed to minimize the deleterious impact of hypoactivity on neuromuscular function. OBJECTIVE: The current narrative review aimed to discuss the contributions of motor imagery and action observation, which enhance motor (re)learning and induce neural adaptations in both healthy individuals and injured athletes. METHODS: Online literature research for studies of the effects of motor imagery, action observation and their combination on hypoactivity, extracting relevant publications within the last decade (2009-2020). RESULTS: From published studies and the authors' knowledge of both motor imagery and action observation, some elements are provided for developing applied protocols during and after the immobilization period. Such interventions consist of associating congruent action observation with kinesthetic motor imagery of different movements, organized in increasing difficulty. The aim is to maintain motor functions and promote motor relearning by activating sensorimotor cortical areas and corticomotor pathways of the injured effector. CONCLUSION: This narrative review supports the implementation of combined motor imagery and action observation protocols in the context of sports rehabilitation.

Effect of tactile-kinesthetic stimulation on growth, neurobehavior and development among preterm neonates.

BACKGROUND: Preterm neonates are at risk of delayed growth and development. Hence, early tactile-kinesthetic stimulation (TKS) is required to improve their growth and development. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of TKS on growth, neurobehavior and development among preterm neonates. METHOD: An interventional study was conducted from August 2015 to July 2017 in the neonatal unit of Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital. Preterm neonates were recruited via random sampling and divided into two groups (the intervention group and control group). TKS was performed for 15 min, three times a day, for 10 days. The anthropometric measurements, neurobehavior (Dubowitz score) and development (Capute Scale score) of neonates in both groups were assessed. RESULTS: There were 126 preterm neonates (n = 63 in each group). During the 10-day TKS period, the intervention group had a significant increment in weight and length compared to the control group (p < 0.05) at 11-14 days, at term and 3 months. Moreover, increased tone, reflexes, and improvement in behavior based on the Dubowitz score were observed during monitoring. However, the result did not differ significantly (p > 0.05). There was no significant difference in terms of cognitive and language development in both groups (Developmental Quotient of Clinical Linguistic Adaptive Milestone Scale, Developmental Quotient of Clinical Adaptive Test and Full Scale Developmental Quotient scores, p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: TKS was significantly effective in promoting growth, particularly weight and length, among preterm neonates. However, it did not significantly influence neurobehavior and development at 3 months of chronological age.

Translation and validation of the movement imagery questionnaire-3 second French version.

INTRODUCTION: Motor imagery (MI) can be defined as the mental simulation of an action without performing it. Its effectiveness can be substantially influenced by imagery ability, and it is currently accepted that three main modalities are used in MI (kinaesthetic imagery, and internal or external visual imageries). In the context of rehabilitation, MI combined with physical therapy is further known to facilitate functional improvements, and promote cortical reorganization and long-term recovery. This study aimed to test the reproducibility and the validity of constructs (internal consistency and factorial structure) of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 Second French version (MIQ-3Sf). METHOD: The internal consistency as well as the validity of constructs and the test-retest inter-rate reproducibility of the MIQ-3Sf was examined, in 553 participants, for the kinaesthetic and visual items. RESULTS: The composite reliability scores (≥0.92) and the intraclass correlation coefficients (>0.88) for the kinaesthetic, internal visual and external visual imagery subscales revealed satisfactory internal consistency and reproducibility. Moreover, Pearson correlations revealed a strong relationship between the MIQ-3Sf and the MIQ-3f. CONCLUSIONS: /Implications. The MIQ-3Sf can be considered as a valid, reliable and useful questionnaire for examining MI ability in the context of rehabilitation.

A different point of view: the evaluation of motor imagery perspectives in patients with sensorimotor impairments in a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Motor imagery (MI) has been successfully applied in neurological rehabilitation. Little is known about the spontaneous selection of the MI perspectives in patients with sensorimotor impairments. What perspective is selected: internal (first-person view), or external (third-person view)? The aim was to evaluate the MI perspective preference in patients with sensorimotor impairments. METHODS: In a longitudinal study including four measurement sessions, 55 patients (25 stroke, 25 multiple sclerosis, 5 Parkinson's disease; 25 females; mean age 58 ± 14 years) were included. MI ability and perspective preference in both visual and kinaesthetic imagery modalities were assessed using the Kinaesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire-20 (KVIQ-20), the body rotation task (BRT), and mental chronometry (MC). Additionally, patients' activity level was assessed. Descriptive analyses were performed regarding different age- (< 45, 45-64, > 64), activity levels (inactive, partially active, active), and KVIQ-20 movement classifications (axial, proximal, distal, upper and lower limb). A mixed-effects model was used to investiage the relationship between the primary outcome (MI perspective: internal, external) with the explanatory variables age, MI modality (visual, kinaesthetic), movement type (axial, proximal, distal), activity levels and the different assessments (KVIQ-20, BRT, MC). RESULTS: Imagery modality was not a significant predictor of perspective preference. Over the four measurement sessions, patients tended to become more consistent in their perspective selection, however, time point was not a significant predictor. Movement type was a significant predictor: imagination of distal vs. axial and proximal vs. axial movements were both associated with preference for external perspective. Patients with increased physical activity level tend to use internal imagery, however, this effect was borderline not statistically significant. Age was neither a significant precictor. Regarding the MI assessments, the KVIQ- 20 score was a significant predictor. The patients with higher test scores tend to use the external perspective. CONCLUSION: It is recommended to evaluate the spontaneous MI perspective selection to design patient-specific MI training interventions. Distal movements (foot, finger) may be an indicator when evaluating the consistency of the MI perspective in patients with sensorimotor impairments.

Effects of visual-motor illusion on functional connectivity during motor imagery.

This study aimed to verify whether visual-motor illusion changes the functional connectivity during kinesthetic motor imagery and the vividness of kinesthetic motor imagery. Twelve right-handed healthy adults participated in this study. All participants randomly performed both the illusion and observation conditions in 20 min, respectively. Illusion condition was induced kinesthetic illusion by viewing own finger movement video. Observation condition was observed own finger movement video. Before and after each condition, the brain activity of kinesthetic motor imagery was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. The measure of brain activity under kinesthetic motor imagery was executed in five sets using block design. Under the kinesthetic motor imagery, participants were asked to imagine the movement of their right finger. Functional connectivity was analyzed during the kinesthetic motor imagery. In addition, after performing the task under kinesthetic motor imagery, the vividness of the kinesthetic motor imagery was measured using a visual analog scale. Furthermore, after each condition, the degree of kinesthetic illusion and sense of body ownership measured based on a seven-point Likert scale. Our results indicated that the functional connectivity during kinesthetic motor imagery was changed in the frontal-parietal network of the right hemisphere. The vividness of the kinesthetic motor imagery was significantly higher with the illusion condition compared with the observation condition. The degree of kinesthetic illusion and sense of body ownership were significantly higher with the illusion condition compared with the observation condition. In conclusion, the visual-motor illusion changes the functional connectivity during kinesthetic motor imagery and influences the vividness of kinesthetic motor imagery. The visual-motor illusion provides evidence that it improves motor imagery ability. VMI may be used in patients with impaired motor imagery.

Imagining handwriting movements in a usual or unusual position: effect of posture congruency on visual and kinesthetic motor imagery.

Motor imagery has been used in training programs to improve the performance of motor skills. Handwriting movement may benefit from motor imagery training. To optimize the efficacy of this kind of training, it is important to identify the factors that facilitate the motor imagery process for handwriting movements. Several studies have shown that motor imagery is more easily achieved when there is maximum compatibility between the actual posture and the imagined movement. We, therefore, examined the effect of posture congruency on visual and kinesthetic motor imagery for handwriting movements. Adult participants had to write and imagine writing a sentence by focusing on the evocation of either the kinesthetic or visual consequences of the motion. Half the participants performed the motor imagery task in a congruent posture (sitting with a hand ready for writing), and half in an incongruent one (standing with arms crossed behind the back and fingers spread wide). The temporal similarity between actual and imagined movement times and the vividness of the motor imagery were evaluated. Results revealed that temporal similarity was stronger in the congruent posture condition than in the incongruent one. Furthermore, in the incongruent posture condition, participants reported greater difficulty forming a precise kinesthetic motor image of themselves writing than a visual image, whereas no difference was observed in the congruent posture condition. Taken together, our results show that postural information is taken into account during the mental simulation of handwriting movements. The implications of these findings for guiding the design of motor imagery training are discussed.

Neurological and behavioral features of locomotor imagery in the blind.

In people with normal sight, mental simulation (motor imagery) of an experienced action involves a multisensory (especially kinesthetic and visual) emulation process associated with the action. Here, we examined how long-term blindness influences sensory experience during motor imagery and its neuronal correlates by comparing data obtained from blind and sighted people. We scanned brain activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while 16 sighted and 14 blind male volunteers imagined either walking or jogging around a circle of 2 m radius. In the training before fMRI, they performed these actions with their eyes closed. During scanning, we explicitly instructed the blindfolded participants to generate kinesthetic motor imagery. After the experimental run, they rated the degree to which their motor imagery became kinesthetic or spatio-visual. The imagery of blind people was more kinesthetic as per instructions, while that of the sighted group became more spatio-visual. The imagery of both groups commonly activated bilateral frontoparietal cortices including supplementary motor areas (SMA). Despite the lack of group differences in degree of brain activation, we observed stronger functional connectivity between the SMA and cerebellum in the blind group compared to that in the sighted group. To conclude, long-term blindness likely changes sensory emulation during motor imagery to a more kinesthetic mode, which may be associated with stronger functional coupling in kinesthetic brain networks compared with that in sighted people. This study adds valuable knowledge on motor cognition and mental imagery processes in the blind.

Children's motor imagery modality dominance modulates the role of attentional focus in motor skill learning.

We investigated whether children's motor imagery dominance modulated the relationship between attentional focus and motor learning of a tossing task. One hundred and thirty-eight boys (age: M = 10.13, SD = 0.65) completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire - Children (MIQ-C) to determine imagery modality dominance (kinesthetic, internal-visual, external-visual) and were randomly assigned to either an internal (n = 71) or external (n = 67) attentional focus group. Participants completed 60 trials of a tossing task with their non-dominant hand on day 1. Participants in the internal focus group were asked "to focus on the throwing arm", whereas participants in the external focus group were instructed "to focus on the ball." A retention test was conducted 24 h later to assess motor learning. Overall, the results from a nested, multiple linear regression analysis indicated the degree to which internal or external focus influences children's throwing accuracy is dependent upon their motor imagery modality dominance. Specifically, higher levels of external-visual imagery dominance resulted in greater motor learning for children adopting an external focus. In contrast, higher values of kinesthetic imagery dominance resulted in reduced motor learning for children who adopted an external focus. Despite the need for future research, we recommend motor imagery modality dominance assessments be considered when investigating the influence of attentional focus on motor learning, particularly when the target population is children.