Chapitre 7. L'âme et le corps à travers le droit romain et le droit canon.

Within this work are approached some historical elements on the history of the evolution of the perception of the links between the soul and the body and the modification of the place of the soul within canon and Roman rights.

Sorcery and well-being: bodily transformation at Beckeranta.

This paper examines bodily transformation and well-being within the context of a millenarian movement that emerged during the 1840s in the area surrounding Mount Roraima at the periphery of Brazil, Guyana (British Guiana at the time), and Venezuela. The site of this movement was Beckeranta - meaning 'Land of the Whites' - where up to 400 Amerindians were reportedly killed in a quest that is described in its sole historical account as centred around a goal of bodily transformation into white people. In examining this movement, the paper engages with longstanding debates in medical anthropology concerning the body, as well as conversations among Amazonianists concerning the social formation of bodies, and examines sorcery and shamanism as practices that go 'beyond the body'. Notions of bodily transformation in Amazonia, which are often activated by strong emotions, facilitate conceptual expansions of the body in medical anthropology. The paper suggests that bodily transformations tied to sorcery and shamanism are in some contexts, such as at Beckeranta, associated with desires for well-being.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/13648470.2020.1807726.

Plagues and artistic votive expressions (ex voto) of popular piety.

In past centuries, epidemics, the scourge of humankind, caused pain, anger, uncertainty of the future, social as well as economic disorder and a significant impact on their victims, involving also their spiritual sphere. The latter effect led to undoubted effects on participation in the religious and social life of communities. The custom of preparing artistic votive expressions has been lost in the mists of time and evidence of ex voto gifts, offered by believers to pagan gods, has been found in prehistoric archaeological sites. Furthermore, several finds from the Ancient Greek and Roman worlds may be observed in our museums. These remains are generally ceramic and metal artifacts, reproducing limbs and other body parts which had been healed. These elements, according to the belief of those making the offerings, had benefited from the miraculous intervention of a thaumaturgical deity. With the advent of Christianity, some pre-existing religious practices were endorsed by the new religion. Believers continued to demonstrate their gratitude in different ways either to miracle-working saints or to the Virgin Mary, because they thought that, thanks to an act of faith, their own health or that of a family member would benefit from the direct intervention of the divine entities to whom they had prayed. In the Ancient Greek world, it was believed that the god Asclepius could directly influence human events, as testified by the popularity of shrines and temples to the god, especially at Epidaurus. In the Christian world as well, particular places have been detected, often solitary and secluded in the countryside or in the mountains, where, according to tradition, direct contact was established between the faithful and Saints or the Virgin Mary Herself. Manifestations occurred by means of miracles and apparitions, thereby creating a direct link between the supernatural world and believers. Religious communities, in these extraordinary places, responded to the call through the building of shrines and promotion of the cult. Over time, the faithful reached these places of mystery, performing pilgrimages with the aim of strengthening their religious faith, but also with the purpose of seeking intercession and grace. In this case, the request for clemency assumed spiritual characteristics and also became a profession of faith. Accordingly, the shrines in the Christian world are places where supernatural events may occur. In these environments the believer resorted to faith, when medicine showed its limits in a tangible way. For the above reasons, while epidemics were occurring, the requests for clemency were numerous and such petitions were both individual and collective. In particular, by means of votive offerings (ex voto) the believers, both individually and collectively, gave the evidence of the received grace to the thaumaturgical Saint. Through the votive act, a perpetual link between the believer and the Saints or Holy Virgin was forged and a strong request for communion was transmitted. The aim of the present study is to describe the role played by votive tablets (ex voto) in the last 500-600 years, as visible evidence of human suffering. From this perspective, these votive expressions may assume the role of markers because, in accordance with the expressions of popular faith, they allow us to follow the most important outbreaks that have caused distress to Christian communities.

Pathfinders in oncology from ancient times to the end of the Middle Ages.

This commentary highlights the onset and progression of the diagnosis and treatment of cancer from ancient times to the 15th century. During the preparation of this synoptic review of the lives and contributions to oncology of 7 ancient physicians, it became clear that despite separation by centuries, ethnicity, and religion, they had many things in common. For example, with the exception of Chauliac, all were born into wealthy families, had an excellent education in the liberal arts and sciences, and were mentored by outstanding teachers. After they became physicians, they traveled extensively, were polyglots, were sponsored by influential individuals, had inquisitive minds, searched for the true nature of diseases, and were proud to share the results of their observations with others. Except for Galen, all of them were kind and well-mannered individuals. They cared with sincere dedication for the poor and those who had untreatable disease, including cancer. Although their understanding of cancer was limited, they were deeply concerned about the neglect and hopelessness of cancer patients. They were aware of their shortcomings in offering effective treatment beyond the surgical excision of early cancers. For advanced cancers, they had nothing to give beyond palliative care with herbals and minerals. All physicians who care for cancer patients owe these pioneer physicians, whatever their shortcomings, an inexpressible debt for their attempts to cure cancer. Cancer 2016;122:1638-46. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Reception of Homeopathy by the Hungarian Churches and Clericals during the 19-20. Centuries. / A prevenció gondolata az 1876. évi közegészségügyi törvényben..

This study gives a special overview of the history of homeopathy in Flungary focusing exclusively on the attitude of the Elungarian churches regarding this new healing method. Authors attempt to prove, that homeopathy actually was a system rooting in Christianity, and according to this fact several priests and eccelesiastical persons took part in the propagation of the method, especially during the 19. century. The essay lists the most important Flunga- rian homeopathic doctors with special regard on their close connections to Catholic priests or bishops and on homeopathic hospitals supported by Christian churches.

[In process.] / Missionspharmazie Wissensaustausch - Wissensbildung -Wissenstransfer.

Missionary pharmacy developed as a special type of the European pharmacy from the 16th to the 18th centuries in the overseas missions in the context of the proclamation of the Christian faith, the European expansion and the beginning globalization. As this type of pharmacy was determined by the specific circumstances of the medical-pharmaceutical situation in the mission countries as well as by the knowledge of the missionaries themselves, it can be defined as missionary pharmacy. It followed principally the model of the medieval monastery pharmacy and paved the way for the Medical Mission at the beginning of the 19th century. Different lines of development on various levels of exchange, forming, documenting and transmission of knowledge shaped the concept of the missionary pharmacy. The activities in the context of the missionary pharmacy initiated a global transfer of drugs and the referring pharmaceutical knowledge, which was institutionalized by the pharmacies of the Jesuits and essentially influenced the development of the Materiae medicae and the development of modern pharmacy all around the globe. The trading routes of typical drugs like the Fever bark and compositions can reconstruct this international transfer of knowledge. Still nowadays, knowledge of the missionary pharmacy, especially about genuine plants of the non-European countries, can be interesting for the development of new phytotherapeutics and possibly active substances.

Winifred Rushforth and the Davidson Clinic for Medical Psychotherapy: a case study in the overlap of psychotherapy, Christianity and New Age spirituality.

The activities of both Winifred Rushforth (1885-1983), and the Edinburgh-based Davidson Clinic for Medical Psychotherapy (1941-73) which she directed, exemplify and elaborate the overlap in Scotland of religious discourses and practices with psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Even as post-war secularization began to affect Scottish culture and society, Rushforth and the Davidson Clinic attempted to renew the biographical discourses of Christianity using the idioms and practices of psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Furthermore, alongside these Christian-inflected activities, Rushforth promoted a psychoanalytically-informed New Age spirituality. This parallel mode of belief and practice drew on Christian life-narrative patterns, preserving them within psychoanalytic forms grafted onto a vitalist worldview informed by the work of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.

[History of medicine in the Amazon region. Disappearance of the shaman and Christianization of healing rituals among the tariano Indians, at the urban outskirts of Manaus]. / Histoire de la médecine en Amazonas. Disparition du chamane et christianisation des rites de guérison chez les indiens tariano, a la périphérie urbaine de Manaus.

A brief history of medicine in Amazonas: the end of shamanism and the progressive Christianisation of therapeutical rites among the Tarianos, in the suburbs of Manaus.

The relationship between heart and 'inner self' from Aristotle to current clinical practice.

Modern songs, films, novels and daily speech often use heart imagery to illustrate 'inner self' experiences, such as deeply felt emotions. Where do these ideas come from and what relevance (if any) do they have for medicine today? This article explores some of the key origins and periods of development of heart/'inner self' ideas before considering the significance of heart/'inner self' interactions in modern clinical practice: from Aristotelian anatomy and the translated Hebrew Scriptures; through Shakespeare, William Harvey and the Protestant Reformation; to theories of emotion and modern-day cardiology. I conclude that heart/'inner self' interactions exist in clinically significant ways, but are poorly understood and under-recognised in healthcare settings. Greater integration of cardiovascular and psychosocial medicine would improve patient care.

Christianity and epilepsy.

Epileptic seizures have been known from time immemorial. Throughout the ages, however, ideas concerning the aetiology and treatment of epilepsy have changed considerably. Epilepsy is mentioned many times in the Pentateuch, where it is portrayed as a mysterious condition, whose symptoms, course and contingencies evade rational laws and explanations. In the Middle Ages, the accepted view which prevailed in social consciousness was that patients with epilepsy were possessed by Satan and other impure spirits. One common method of treatment of epileptic seizures was to submit the patient to cruel exorcisms. Patients were frequently injured in the process and some of them even died. Our understanding of epilepsy and its social consequences has improved considerably within the last century. The most significant progress as far as diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy is concerned took place in the last four decades of the twentieth century. Although we now know much more about epilepsy than we used to, this knowledge is still insufficiently popularized.

Chocolate in history: food, medicine, medi-food.

Throughout history, chocolate has been used to treat a wide variety of ailments, and in recent years, multiple studies have found that chocolate can have positive health effects, providing evidence to a centuries-long established use; this acknowledgement, however, did not have a straight course, having been involved in religious, medical and cultural controversies. Christian Europe, in fact, feared the exhilarating effects of new drinks, such as chocolate, coffee and tea. Therefore, these beverages would have been banished, had not doctors and scientists explained that they were good for the body. The scientific debate, which reached its peak in Florence in the 18th century, regarded the therapeutic effectiveness of the various chocolate components: it was necessary to know their properties first, in order to prepare the best cacao concoction for every patient. When Dietetics separated from Medicine, however, chocolate acquired the role of vehicle for easing the administration of bitter medicines, being associated to different health problems. The recent rediscovery of the beneficial use of cacao and chocolate focuses upon its value as supplemental nutrition. Building a bridge to the past may be helpful to detect the areas where the potential health benefits of chocolate are likely to be further explored.