Acupuncture alleviates inflammatory pain by activating CXCL1/CXCR2 signaling in the primary somatosensory cortex in adjuvant induced arthritis rats. / S1脑区CXCL1/CXCR2å‚ä¸Žé’ˆåˆºæ”¹å–„ä½å‰‚æ€§å ³èŠ‚ç‚Žå¤§é¼ ç‚Žæ€§ç—›çš„ä½œç”¨æœºåˆ¶.

OBJECTIVES: To observe whether acupuncture up-regulates chemokine CXC ligand 1 (CXCL1) in the brain to play an analgesic role through CXCL1/chemokine CXC receptor 2 (CXCR2) signaling in adjuvant induced arthritis (AIA) rats, so as to reveal its neuro-immunological mechanism underlying improvement of AIA. METHODS: BALB/c mice with relatively stable thermal pain reaction were subjected to planta injection of complete Freund adjuvant (CFA) for establishing AIA model, followed by dividing the AIA mice into simple AF750 (fluorochrome) and AF750+CXCL1 groups (n=2 in each group). AF750 labeled CXCL1 recombinant protein was then injected into the mouse's tail vein to induce elevation of CXCL1 level in blood for simulating the effect of acupuncture stimulation which has been demonstrated by our past study. In vivo small animal imaging technology was used to observe the AF750 and AF750+CXCL1-labelled target regions. After thermal pain screening, the Wistar rats with stable pain reaction were subjected to AIA modeling by injecting CFA into the rat's right planta, then were randomized into model and manual acupuncture groups (n=12 in each group). Other 12 rats that received planta injection of saline were used as the control group. Manual acupuncture (uniform reinforcing and reducing manipulations) was applied to bilateral "Zusanli" (ST36) for 4×2 min, with an interval of 5 min between every 2 min, once daily for 7 days. The thermal pain threshold was assessed by detecting the paw withdrawal latency (PWL) using a thermal pain detector. The contents of CXCL1 in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1), medial prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, periaqueductal gray and rostroventromedial medulla regions were assayed by using ELISA, and the expression levels of CXCL1, CXCR2 and mu-opioid receptor (MOR) mRNA in the S1 region were detected using real time-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The immune-fluorescence positive cellular rate of CXCL1 and CXCR2 in S1 region was observed after immunofluorescence stain. The immunofluorescence double-stain of CXCR2 and astrocyte marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) or neuron marker NeuN or MOR was used to determine whether there is a co-expression between them. RESULTS: In AIA mice, results of in vivo experiments showed no obvious enrichment signal of AF750 or AF750+CXCL1 in any organ of the body, while in vitro experiments showed that there was a stronger fluorescence signal of CXCL1 recombinant protein in the brain. In rats, compared with the control group, the PWL from day 0 to day 7 was significantly decreased (P<0.01) and the expression of CXCR2 mRNA in the S1 region significantly increased in the model group (P<0.05), while in comparison with the model group, the PWL from day 2 to day 7, CXCL1 content, CXCR2 mRNA expression and CXCR2 content, and MOR mRNA expression in the S1 region were significantly increased in the manual acupuncture group (P<0.05, P<0.01). Immunofluorescence stain showed that CXCR2 co-stained with NeuN and MOR in the S1 region, indicating that CXCR2 exists in neurons and MOR-positive neurons but not in GFAP positive astrocytes. CONCLUSIONS: Acupuncture can increase the content of CXCL1 in S1 region, up-regulate CXCR2 on neurons in the S1 region and improve MOR expression in S1 region of AIA rats, which may contribute to its effect in alleviating inflammatory pain.

Immune and metabolic challenges induce changes in pain sensation and related pathways in the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamic molecular processes participate in the regulation of the neuro-immune-endocrine system, including hormone, metabolite, chemokine circulation, and corresponding physiological and behavioral responses. RNA-sequencing profiles were analyzed to understand the effect of juvenile immune and metabolic distress 100 days after virally elicited maternal immune activation during gestation in pigs. Over 1,300 genes exhibited significant additive or interacting effects of gestational immune activation, juvenile distress, and sex. One-third of these genes presented multiple effects, emphasizing the complex interplay of these factors. Key functional categories enriched among affected genes included sensory perception of pain, steroidogenesis, prolactin, neuropeptide, and inflammatory signaling. These categories underscore the intricate relationship between gestational immune activation during gestation, distress, and the response of hypothalamic pathways to insults. These effects were sex-dependent for many genes, such as Prdm12, Oprd1, Isg20, Prl, Oxt, and Vip. The prevalence of differentially expressed genes annotated to proinflammatory and cell cycle processes suggests potential implications for synaptic plasticity and neuronal survival. The gene profiles affected by immune activation, distress, and sex pointed to the action of transcription factors SHOX2, STAT1, and REST. These findings underscore the importance of considering sex and postnatal challenges when studying causes of neurodevelopmental disorders and highlight the complexity of the "two-hit" hypothesis in understanding their etiology. Our study furthers the understanding of the intricate molecular responses in the hypothalamus to gestational immune activation and subsequent distress, shedding light on the sex-specific effects and the potential long-lasting consequences on pain perception, neuroendocrine regulation, and inflammatory processes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The interaction of infection during gestation and insults later in life influences the molecular mechanisms in the hypothalamus that participate in pain sensation. The response of the hypothalamic transcriptome varies between sexes and can also affect synapses and immune signals. The findings from this study assist in the identification of agonists or antagonists that can guide pretranslational studies to ameliorate the effects of gestational insults interacting with postnatal challenges on physiological or behavioral disorders.

Patterns of brain c-Fos expression in response to feeding behavior in acute and chronic inflammatory pain condition.

OBJECTIVES: Feeding behavior is known to have potential to alleviate pain. We recently demonstrated that both 24 h fasting and 2 h refeeding (food intake after 24 h fasting) induce analgesia in inflammatory pain conditions via different brain mechanisms. However, brain structures that distinctly involved fasting- and refeeding-induced analgesia is still unknown. Hence, this study is aimed to reveal brain structures mediating fasting- and refeeding-induced analgesia. METHODS: Mice were given intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of formalin and complete Freund's adjuvant into the left hind paw to induce acute and chronic inflammatory pain, respectively. We examined changes in c-Fos expression with 24 h fasting and 2 h refeeding under acute and chronic inflammatory pain conditions in the contralateral brain. RESULTS: Under acute pain condition, c-Fos expression changed with fasting in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), central amygdala (CeA), lateral hypothalamus (LH) and nucleus accumbens core (NAcC). Refeeding changed c-Fos expression in the CeA, LH and lateral parabrachial nucleus (lPBN). On the other hand, under chronic inflammatory pain condition, c-Fos expression changed with fasting in the lPBN, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and nucleus accumbens shell (NAcS) while refeeding changed c-Fos expression in the anterior insular cortex, lPBN, mPFC and NAcS. CONCLUSION: The present results show that brain regions that participated in the fasting- and refeeding-induced analgesia were completely different in acute and chronic inflammatory pain conditions. Also, refeeding recruits more brain regions under chronic inflammatory pain conditions compared to the acute inflammatory pain condition. Collectively, our findings provide novel insights into brain regions involved in fasting- and refeeding-induced analgesia, which can be potential neural circuit-based targets for the development of novel therapeutics.

[Research advances of studies on involvement of the anterior cingulate cortex involved in acupuncture-induced amelioration treatment of affective pain].

As an unpleasant subjective feeling and emotional experience, pain has a negative impact on the physical and mental health of patients. In the early years, the research concerning pain mostly focused on the sensory-discriminative component. With the development of modern medicine, people found that the generation of affective-emotional component of pain has its unique physiological mechanism, and thus carried out a lot of in-depth research. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the main brain area activated by affective pain, and the regulation of acupuncture on pain aversion is mainly related to it. The mechanism includes various signal pathways, such as extracellular regulated protein kinases-mitogen activated protein kinase-cAMP-response element binding protein pathway, adenylate cyclase 1 protein kinase Mζ- glutamate receptor 1 pathway, contains many biomolecules, such as opioid receptors, neuropeptide S and its receptor, and refers to microglia at the cellular level. This article reviewed the neural mechanism of ACC involved in affective pain and the role of acupuncture played in this process.

Serotonergic gene-to-gene interaction is associated with mood and GABA concentrations but not with pain-related cerebral processing in fibromyalgia subjects and healthy controls.

The neurotransmitter serotonin, involved in the regulation of pain and emotion, is critically regulated by the 5-HT1A autoreceptor and the serotonin transporter (5-HTT). Polymorphisms of these genes affect mood and endogenous pain modulation, both demonstrated to be altered in fibromyalgia subjects (FMS). Here, we tested the effects of genetic variants of the 5-HT1A receptor (CC/G-carriers) and 5-HTT (high/intermediate/low expression) on mood, pain sensitivity, cerebral processing of evoked pain (functional MRI) and concentrations of GABA and glutamate (MR spectroscopy) in rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and thalamus in FMS and healthy controls (HC). Interactions between serotonin-relevant genes were found in affective characteristics, with genetically inferred high serotonergic signalling (5-HT1A CC/5-HTThigh genotypes) being more favourable across groups. Additionally, 5-HT1A CC homozygotes displayed higher pain thresholds than G-carriers in HC but not in FMS. Cerebral processing of evoked pressure pain differed between groups in thalamus with HC showing more deactivation than FMS, but was not influenced by serotonin-relevant genotypes. In thalamus, we observed a 5-HT1A-by-5-HTT and group-by-5-HTT interaction in GABA concentrations, with the 5-HTT high expressing genotype differing between groups and 5-HT1A genotypes. No significant effects were seen for glutamate or in rACC. To our knowledge, this is the first report of this serotonergic gene-to-gene interaction associated with mood, both among FMS (depression) and across groups (anxiety). Additionally, our findings provide evidence of an association between the serotonergic system and thalamic GABA concentrations, with individuals possessing genetically inferred high serotonergic signalling exhibiting the highest GABA concentrations, possibly enhancing GABAergic inhibitory effects via 5-HT.

Biased versus Partial Agonism in the Search for Safer Opioid Analgesics.

Opioids such as morphine-acting at the mu opioid receptor-are the mainstay for treatment of moderate to severe pain and have good efficacy in these indications. However, these drugs produce a plethora of unwanted adverse effects including respiratory depression, constipation, immune suppression and with prolonged treatment, tolerance, dependence and abuse liability. Studies in ß-arrestin 2 gene knockout (ßarr2(-/-)) animals indicate that morphine analgesia is potentiated while side effects are reduced, suggesting that drugs biased away from arrestin may manifest with a reduced-side-effect profile. However, there is controversy in this area with improvement of morphine-induced constipation and reduced respiratory effects in ßarr2(-/-) mice. Moreover, studies performed with mice genetically engineered with G-protein-biased mu receptors suggested increased sensitivity of these animals to both analgesic actions and side effects of opioid drugs. Several new molecules have been identified as mu receptor G-protein-biased agonists, including oliceridine (TRV130), PZM21 and SR-17018. These compounds have provided preclinical data with apparent support for bias toward G proteins and the genetic premise of effective and safer analgesics. There are clinical data for oliceridine that have been very recently approved for short term intravenous use in hospitals and other controlled settings. While these data are compelling and provide a potential new pathway-based target for drug discovery, a simpler explanation for the behavior of these biased agonists revolves around differences in intrinsic activity. A highly detailed study comparing oliceridine, PZM21 and SR-17018 (among others) in a range of assays showed that these molecules behave as partial agonists. Moreover, there was a correlation between their therapeutic indices and their efficacies, but not their bias factors. If there is amplification of G-protein, but not arrestin pathways, then agonists with reduced efficacy would show high levels of activity at G-protein and low or absent activity at arrestin; offering analgesia with reduced side effects or 'apparent bias'. Overall, the current data suggests-and we support-caution in ascribing biased agonism to reduced-side-effect profiles for mu-agonist analgesics.

Acute administration of levetiracetam in tonic pain model modulates gene expression of 5HT1A and 5HT7 receptors in the thalamus of rats (Rattus norvergicus).

The nociceptive effect of Levetiracetam (LEV) on the expression of 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 receptors found in the thalamus was evaluated. Thirty-six male rats (Wistar) were randomized into six groups: in the Control group without treatment; LEV50 group LEV was administered in a single dose of 50 mg/kg i.g.; in the LEV300 group LEV dose of 300 mg/kg i.g.; in the FORMALIN group the formalin test was performed; in the LEV50/FORMALIN group LEV dose of 50 mg/kg i.g and the formalin test was performed; in the LEV300/FORMALIN group LEV dose of 300 mg/kg i.g and the formalin test was performed, subsequently the thalamus was dissected in all groups. In the formalin tests LEV exhibited an antinociceptive effect in the LEV300/FORMALIN group (p < 0.05) and a pronociceptive effect in the LEV50/FORMALIN group (p < 0.001). The results obtained by Real-time PCR confirmed the expression of the 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 receptors in the thalamus, 5-HT1A receptors increased significantly in the FORMALIN group and the LEV300/FORMALIN group (p < 0.05). 5-HT7 receptors are only over expressed at a dose of 300 mg/Kg of LEV with formalin (p < 0.05). This suggests that LEV modulates the sensation of pain by controlling the expression of 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 in a tonic pain model, and that changes in the expression of 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 receptors are associated with the sensation of pain, furthermore its possibility to be used in clinical treatments for pain.

Evodiamine via targeting nNOS and AMPA receptor GluA1 inhibits nitroglycerin-induced migraine-like response.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Evodiamine (EVO) is a natural compound derived from Tetradium ruticarpum (A.Juss.) T.G.Hartley used to treat pain and migraine in traditional Chinese medicine. EVO is the primary active ingredient of Tetradium ruticarpum. However, the preventive effect of EVO against migraine remains unexplored. AIM OF THE STUDY: To investigate the preventive effect of EVO against nitroglycerin (NTG)-induced acute migraine in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were intragastrically administered EVO (45 or 90 mg/kg) for nine days. To establish an acute migraine model, we subcutaneously injected rats with a 10 mg/kg NTG solution. The migraine-like behavior of the rats was evaluated via the formalin test and the warm water tail-withdrawal assay. The periaqueductal gray (PAG) and serum samples were collected from the rats and used to determine the effect of EVO on the levels of serum nitric oxide (NO), CGRP, c-Fos, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptor GluA1. RESULTS: The formalin test and the warm water tail-withdrawal assay showed that EVO inhibited the licking foot/shaking response and reversed the shortened tail-withdrawal latency in NTG-treated rats. Additionally, EVO suppressed serum NO levels and reduced the mRNA/protein expression of c-Fos and nNOS, but not iNOS, in the PAG. Furthermore, EVO suppressed total protein expression of the AMPA receptor GluA1 and its phosphorylation at Ser831 and Ser845. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that EVO inhibits the migraine-like pain response and that this beneficial effect might be attributed to the regulation of nNOS and suppression of the AMPA receptor GluA1. We suggest that EVO has the potential to treat migraine as a lead compound of natural origin.

Effects of genotype on TENS effectiveness in controlling knee pain in persons with mild to moderate osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND: This study examined the extent to which genetic variability modifies Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) effectiveness in osteoarthritic knee pain. METHODS: Seventy-five participants with knee osteoarthritis were randomly assigned to either: (a) High-frequency TENS, (b) Low-frequency TENS or (c) Transient Placebo TENS. Pain measures were collected pre- and post-treatment. Participants were genotyped on genes implicated in central or peripheral pain pathways: NGFB, NTRK1, EDNRA, EDNRB, EDN1, OPRM1, TAC1, TACR1, BDNF, BDKRB1, 5HTT, COMT, ESR2, IL6 and IL1B. Genetic association using linear regression modelling was performed separately for the transient placebo TENS subjects, and within the High-frequency TENS + Low-frequency TENS participants, including TENS level as a covariate. RESULTS: In the placebo group, SNPs rs165599 (COMT) was significantly associated with an increased heat pain threshold (ß = -1.87; p = .003) and rs6827096 (EDNRA) with an increased resting pain (ß = 2.68; p = .001). Within the treatment groups, TENS effectiveness was reduced by the SNP rs6537485 (EDNRA) minor allele in relationship to mechanical sensation (ß = 184.13; p = 5.5E-9). Individuals with the COMT rs4680 minor allele reported lowered pain at rest after TENS (ß = -42.30; p = .001), with a higher magnitude of pain reduction (28 unit difference) in the low-frequency TENS group compared to the high-frequency TENS group (ß = 28.37; p = .0004). CONCLUSIONS: EDNRA and COMT are implicated in osteoarthritic knee pain and provide a basis for tailoring TENS interventions according to individual characteristics. SIGNIFICANCE: Findings from this study demonstrate that genetic variation within the COMT and EDNRA genes influences the effectiveness of TENS, a non-pharmacologic pain-reduction intervention, in the context of osteoarthritic knee pain. Evidence such as this may contribute to risk models that provide a clinically useful tool for personalizing TENS interventions according to individual characteristics in order to best control pain and maximize functional status.

3'-Methoxydaidzein exerts analgesic activity by inhibiting voltage-gated sodium channels.

Isoflavones are widely consumed by people around the world in the form of soy products, dietary supplements and drugs. Many isoflavones or related crude extracts have been reported to exert pain-relief activities, but the mechanism remains unclear. Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) play important roles in excitability of pain sensing neurons and many of them are important nociceptors. Here, we report that several isoflavones including 3'-methoxydaidzein (3MOD), genistein (GEN) and daidzein (DAI) show abilities to block VGSCs and thus to attenuate chemicals and heat induced acute pain or chronic constriction injury (CCI) induced pain hypersensitivity in mice. Especially, 3MOD shows strong analgesic potential without inducing addiction through inhibiting subtypes NaV1.7, NaV1.8 and NaV1.3 with the IC50 of 181 ± 14, 397 ± 26, and 505 ± 46 nmol·L-1, respectively, providing a promising compound or parent structure for the treatment of pain pathologies. This study reveals a pain-alleviating mechanism of dietary isoflavones and may provide a convenient avenue to alleviate pain.

Genome-wide enriched pathway analysis of acute post-radiotherapy pain in breast cancer patients: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) can increase the risk of developing pain; however, the molecular mechanisms of RT-related pain remain unclear. The current study aimed to identify susceptibility loci and enriched pathways for clinically relevant acute post-RT pain, defined as having moderate to severe pain (pain score ≥ 4) at the completion of RT. METHODS: We conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) with 1,344,832 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), a gene-based analysis using PLINK set-based tests of 19,621 genes, and a functional enrichment analysis of a gene list of 875 genes with p < 0.05 using NIH DAVID functional annotation module with KEGG pathways and GO terms (n = 380) among 1112 breast cancer patients. RESULTS: About 29% of patients reported acute post-RT pain. None of SNPs nor genes reached genome-wide significant level. Four SNPs showed suggestive associations with post-RT pain; rs16970540 in RFFL or near the LIG3 gene (p = 1.7 × 10-6), rs4584690, and rs7335912 in ABCC4/MPR4 gene (p = 5.5 × 10-6 and p = 7.8 × 10-6, respectively), and rs73633565 in EGFL6 gene (p = 8.1 × 10-6). Gene-based analysis suggested the potential involvement of neurotransmitters, olfactory receptors, and cytochrome P450 in post-RT pain, whereas functional analysis showed glucuronidation (FDR-adjusted p value = 9.46 × 10-7) and olfactory receptor activities (FDR-adjusted p value = 0.032) as the most significantly enriched biological features. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first GWAS suggesting that post-RT pain is a complex polygenic trait influenced by many biological processes and functions such as glucuronidation and olfactory receptor activities. If validated in larger populations, the results can provide biological targets for pain management to improve cancer patients' quality of life. Additionally, these genes can be further tested as predictive biomarkers for personalized pain management.

Deep Sequencing Identification of Differentially Expressed miRNAs in the Spinal Cord of Resiniferatoxin-Treated Rats in Response to Electroacupuncture.

Electroacupuncture (EA) is an effective treatment to relieve pain in patients with postherpetic neuralgia. However, the mechanisms of EA involved therein are still unknown. We first injected resiniferatoxin (RTX) into Sprague Dawley rats to construct the neuralgia model. One week after injection, the rats were treated with EA at the "Huantiao" (GB30) and "Yanglingquan" (GB34) acupoints for 5 weeks. Nociceptive behavioral tests were performed to analyze the changes in thermal sensitivity and mechanical allodynia after RTX induction and EA treatment. Deep sequencing was performed to identify differentially expressed miRNAs in the spinal cord of RTX-induced rats in response to EA treatment. The nociceptive behavioral tests showed that EA at the left GB30 and GB34 acupoints significantly reduced RTX-induced tactile sensitivity and increased RTX-inhibited thermal sensitivity. The sequencing data indicated that RTX resulted in one upregulated and five downregulated miRNAs, and EA treatment resulted in two upregulated miRNAs. Furthermore, seven upregulated and two downregulated miRNAs were found between rats subjected to EA and sham operation. Functional analysis suggested that the targets of differentially expressed miRNAs were enriched in many nervous system-related pathways. The pathway-gene-miRNA net analysis showed that miR-7a-5p had the most target genes. Moreover, miR-233-3p was downregulated after RTX injection and upregulated by EA treatment. We speculated that the upregulation of miR-7a-5p and miR-233-3p is involved in the analgesic effects of EA. Our analysis on the EA-induced differential expression of miRNAs provides novel insights into the mechanisms of EA analgesia in postherpetic neuralgia.

The Effect of Alpha-Tocopherol on Morphine Tolerance-induced Expression of c-fos Proto-oncogene from a Biotechnological Perspective.

BACKGROUND: The increase of oxidant compounds is the most well-known reasons for the tolerance to the analgesic properties of Morphine. Additionally, the production of proxy-nitrite impairs receptors, proteins and enzymes involved in the signaling pathways of analgesia, apoptosis and necrosis. Also, we revised all patents relating to opioid tolerance control methods. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the effects of Alpha-tocopherol as an anti-oxidant agent to reduce Morphine tolerance. METHOD: Forty male rats randomly divided into four groups. 10 mg/kg of morphine was injected subcutaneously to create the desired level of tolerance. After modeling, 70 mg/kg Alpha- Tocopherol was injected intraperitoneal. Also, the hot plate recorded pain threshold alterations was used to evaluate the behavioral test. All tissue samples were extracted from the spinal cord, thalamus and frontal cortex for molecular and gene expression evaluations. Also, the effect of Alpha- Tocopherol on the apoptosis and necrosis parameters was analyzed using nissl staining and tunel test. RESULTS: The time latency results showed that there were no significant differences in the different days in groups treated with Morphine plus Alpha-Tocopherol. However, our data highlighted that the pain threshold and their time latency in respond to it had substantially increased in comparison with the control group. Furthermore, we found that the Alpha-Tocopherol obviously decreased c-fos gene expression, especially in the spinal cord. CONCLUSION: Thus, co-administration of Alpha-Tocopherol with Morphine can decrease the adverse effects of nitrite proxy, which is released due to repeated injections of Morphine.

A bioinformatics investigation into the pharmacological mechanisms of the effect of Fufang Danshen on pain based on methodologies of network pharmacology.

Fufang Danshen (FFDS), a Chinese medicine formula widely used in the clinic, has proven therapeutic effects on pain relief. However, the mechanisms of these effects have not been elucidated. Here, we performed a systematic analysis to discover the mechanisms of FFDS in attenuating pain to gain a better understanding of FFDS in the treatment of other diseases accompanied by pain. Relevance analysis showed that Salvia miltiorrhizae was the best studied herb in FFDS. Most compounds in FFDS have good bioavailability, and we collected 223 targets for 35 compounds in FFDS. These targets were significantly enriched in many pathways related to pain and can be classified as signal transduction, endocrine system, nervous system and lipid metabolism. We compared Salvia miltiorrhizae and Panax notoginseng and found that they can significantly affect different pathways. Moreover, ten pain disease proteins and 45 therapeutic targets can be directly targeted by FFDS. All 45 therapeutic targets have direct or indirect connections with pain disease proteins. Forty-six pain disease proteins can be indirectly affected by FFDS, especially through heat shock cognate 71 kDa protein (HSPA8) and transcription factor AP-1 (JUN). A total of 109 targets of FFDS were identified as significant targets.

The specialised pro-resolving lipid mediator maresin 1 reduces inflammatory pain with a long-lasting analgesic effect.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Maresin 1 (MaR1) is a specialised pro-resolving lipid mediator with anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities. In this study, we addressed the modulation of peripheral and spinal cord cells by MaR1 in the context of inflammatory pain. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Mice were treated with MaR1 before intraplantar injection of carrageenan or complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Mechanical hyperalgesia was assessed using the electronic von Frey and thermal hyperalgesia using a hot plate. Spinal cytokine production and NF-κB activation were determined by ELISA and astrocytes and microglia activation by RT-qPCR and immunofluorescence. CGRP release by dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons was determined by EIA. Neutrophil and macrophage recruitment were determined by immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and colorimetric methods. Trpv1 and Nav1.8 expression and calcium imaging of DRG neurons were determined by RT-qPCR and Fluo-4AM respectively. KEY RESULTS: MaR1 reduced carrageenan- and CFA-induced mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia and neutrophil and macrophage recruitment proximal to CGRP+ fibres in the paw skin. Moreover, MaR1 reduced NF-κB activation, IL-1ß and TNF-α production, and spinal cord glial cells activation. In the DRG, MaR1 reduced CFA-induced Nav1.8 and Trpv1 mRNA expression and calcium influx and capsaicin-induced release of CGRP by DRG neurons. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: MaR1 reduced DRG neurons activation and CGRP release explaining, at least in part, its analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. The enduring analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects and also post-treatment activity of MaR1 suggest that specialised pro-resolving lipid mediators have potential as a new class of drugs for the treatment of inflammatory pain.

Propofol partially attenuates complete freund's adjuvant-induced neuroinflammation through inhibition of the ERK1/2/NF-κB pathway.

Peripheral inflammation in male C57BL/6 mice was induced by intraplantar injection of 20 µL complete freund's adjuvant (CFA) in the left hind paw. Mice were randomly divided into three groups: Sham, CFA, and propofol+CFA. Mechanical allodynia was assessed by von Frey analysis, and heat hyperalgesia was detected by exposure of the plantar surface to a beam of radiant heat. Propofol significantly attenuated the severity and duration of CFA-induced pain hypersensitivity, heat hyperalgesia, and paw edema. Propofol inhibited CFA-induced microglia activation, and markedly decreased CFA-induced ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (IBA-1) expression. Propofol inhibited CFA-induced expression of p-extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (p-ERK1/2) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) p65, as demonstrated by Western blot analysis. In addition, 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide assays indicated that propofol had no cytotoxic effect on BV2 microglia cells. Reverse transcription-quantitative-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay results demonstrated that propofol attenuates CFA-induced tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1ß production in the spinal cord as well as in BV2 cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that propofol attenuates CFA-induced neuroinflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1ß expression) through a mechanism that involves activation of ERK1/2/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Endocannabinoids, exercise, pain, and a path to health with aging.

Physical activity is an important lifestyle factor for growth, development, and sustained health throughout life. In recent years, the benefits of physical activity have drawn more attention to its physiological effects on the body, including well-being. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has emerged as a focal point to ascertain the mechanisms for how exercise benefits the body and how it reduces or controls pain. The ECS, its ligands [the endocannabinoids (eCB)], receptors (CB1 and CB2), enzymes for the synthesis and degradation of eCB, and the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) that serve as substrates, comprise a powerful biological organization of multiple controls that affects mood, inflammation, pain, and other neurological aspects of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Recently, investigators have reported increases in circulating levels of eCB after exercise, with some eCB exerting analgesic effects from exercise. The focus of this review is to discuss evidence for the role of eCB and the complexities of the ECS in exercise and pain. Some aspects presented herein are production of eCB and activation of the cannabinoid receptors in the brain following exercise; eCB, pain, and physical activity; oxylipins; and joint pain. Future research on the ECS must include mechanistic approaches to endocannabinoid signaling and explain the role of dietary PUFA in altering signaling of the receptors that affects pain. Additionally, how other types of exercise, such as Tai Chi, which is reported to improve well-being, should be investigated to ascertain if changes in eCB mediate the mind and body benefits of Tai Chi. As we age, exercise in the form of play has evolved with the exploration of our body from walking to running, recreational, and competitive sports, to midlife physical activity focusing on maintaining fitness and a healthy body weight. Furthermore, exercise has been a target of investigation to explore various hypotheses to explain the mechanisms for cognitive benefits in the young and in older adults. The science of exercise has matured to a level of importance in the life cycle to reduce pain with aging and include new investigations on the ECS to explain its role in well-being and improved quality of life in later years.

Activation of orexin system facilitates anesthesia emergence and pain control.

Orexin (also known as hypocretin) neurons in the hypothalamus play an essential role in sleep-wake control, feeding, reward, and energy homeostasis. The likelihood of anesthesia and sleep sharing common pathways notwithstanding, it is important to understand the processes underlying emergence from anesthesia. In this study, we investigated the role of the orexin system in anesthesia emergence, by specifically activating orexin neurons utilizing the designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADD) chemogenetic approach. With injection of adeno-associated virus into the orexin-Cre transgenic mouse brain, we expressed the DREADD receptor hM3Dq specifically in orexin neurons and applied the hM3Dq ligand clozapine to activate orexin neurons. We monitored orexin neuronal activities by c-Fos staining and whole-cell patch-clamp recording and examined the consequence of orexin neuronal activation via EEG recording. Our results revealed that the orexin-DREADD mice with activated orexin neurons emerged from anesthesia with significantly shorter latency than the control mice. As an indication of reduced pain sensitivity, these orexin-DREADD mice took longer to respond to the 55 °C thermal stimuli in the hot plate test and exhibited significantly less frequent licking of the formalin-injected paw in the formalin test. Our study suggests that approaches to activate the orexin system can be beneficial in postoperative recovery.

Effects of Zanthoxylum piperitum ethanol extract on osteoarthritis inflammation and pain.

Degenerative arthritis, also known as osteoarthritis (OA), is the most common type of arthritis, which is caused by degenerative damage of the cartilage, which primarily protects the joints, leading to inflammation and pain. The objective of this study was to investigate the in vivo and in vitro effects of treatment with ZPE-LR (90% EtOH extract of Zanthoxylum piperitum) on pain severity and inflammation. When using an in vivo OA model MIA (monosodiumidoacetate-induced arthritis) rats, ZPE-LR (100 mg/kg) oral-administratio significantly inhibited MIA-induced change in loaded weight ratio on the left foot, and articular cartilage thickness. To confirm the positive effects on pain relief, acetic acid, heat and formalin-induced pain were remarkably decreased by 50 and 100 mg/kg ZPE-LR oral-administration. Pain related KCNJ6 mRNA expression as well as K + current was increased after ZPE-LR treatment in BV-2 cells. To confirm the positive effects on inflammation, TPA (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate) induced inflammation measured by mouse ear thickness and biopsy punch weight and TPA-induced iNOS, COX-2 mRNA and protein expression were remarkably suppressed by 50 and 100 mg/kg ZPE-LR oral-administration. In addition, TPA-induced iNOS, COX-2 mRNA level and protein expression were reduced. Acetic acid, heat and formalin-induced pain were remarkably decreased by 50 and 100 mg/kg ZPE-LR oral-administration. We examined in vitro ZPE-LR effects in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. LPS-induced p65 translocation to the nucleus was prohibited by ZPE-LR 100 µg/ml oral administration. Moreover, ROS generation by LPS was significantly inhibited by ZPE-LR 50 and 100 µg/ml treatment. To investigate new ZPE-LR activating mechanisms, the gene fishing method (not a typical term, should probably use PCR based genetic screening) was used. LPS-induced HPRT1 (hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase 1) was decreased by ZPE-LR. However, RPL8 (Ribosomal protein L8) which showed no change in mRNA expression due to LPS, did show increased mRNA levels after ZPE-LR treatment. Our data elucidate mechanisms underlying ZPE-LR and suggest ZPE-LR may be a potential therapeutic agent to modulate osteoarthritis inflammation and pain.

Therapeutic benefits of neoadjuvant and post-operative denosumab on sacral giant cell tumor: a retrospective cohort study of 30 cases.

PURPOSE: Denosumab, a new monoclonal antibody that inhibits receptor activator for nuclear factor Kß ligand (RANKL), has recently been approved by FDA for the treatment of aggressive giant cell tumor of bone (GCTB). So we initiated this study to evaluate the clinical benifits of denosumab used preoperatively or postoperatively. METHODS: Patients diagnosed with classic sacral GCT without metastasis were included in this study. Patients were assigned into 3 groups according to the use of denosumab: control group 1, post-operative group 2 and neoadjuvant group 3. The latter two groups were treated with 120 mg of subcutaneous denosumab every 4 weeks with loading doses on days 8 and 15 of the first cycle. The primary endpoints were event-free-survival (EFS) and objective response rate (OPR) based on RECIST criteria. A system (MUD system) proposed by our center was applied to score the sacral nerve deficit changes before surgery in group 3. RESULTS: A total 30 patients (13 men and 17 women, mean age 34.7 years, range 15-56) were enrolled from April 2014 to July 2016. Group 1 included 10 patients, group 2 9 and group 3 11. The study ended in March 01, 2017, and followup ranged from 3 to 36 months (mean 18.3). Two patients with PET-CT showed SUV max uptake down to muscle tissue level. In the neoadjuvant group 3 7 patients had partial responses and 4 stable disease (ORR 63.6%; 95% CI 35-92). Most (80%) patients achieved significant improvement in pain and great relief in the bladder and bowel functions. In 4 patients the urocatheter was removed after neoadjuvant denosumab. CONCLUSION: Neoadjuvant therapy with denosumab can significantly relieve the symptoms and neurologic deficits.