Differences in physicochemical properties of pectin extracted from pomelo peel with different extraction techniques.

In order to obtain high yield pomelo peel pectin with better physicochemical properties, four pectin extraction methods, including hot acid extraction (HAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction, and enzymatic assisted extraction (EAE) were compared. MAE led to the highest pectin yield (20.43%), and the lowest pectin recovery was found for EAE (11.94%). The physicochemical properties of pomelo peel pectin obtained by different methods were also significantly different. Pectin samples obtained by MAE had the highest methoxyl content (8.35%), galacturonic acid content (71.36%), and showed a higher apparent viscosity, thermal and emulsion stability. The pectin extracted by EAE showed the highest total phenolic content (12.86%) and lowest particle size (843.69 nm), showing higher DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities than other extract methods. The pectin extracted by HAE had the highest particle size (966.12 nm) and degree of esterification (55.67%). However, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed that no significant difference occurred among the different methods in the chemical structure of the extracted pectin. This study provides a theoretical basis for the industrial production of pomelo peel pectin.

Effects of pectin methyl-esterification on intestinal microbiota and its immunomodulatory properties in naive mice.

Pectins are dietary fibers that are attributed with several beneficial immunomodulatory effects. Depending on the degree of esterification (DE), pectins can be classified as high methoxyl pectin (HMP) or low methoxyl pectin (LMP). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of pectin methyl-esterification on intestinal microbiota and its immunomodulatory properties in naive mice. Supplementation of the diet with LMP or HMP induced changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota in mice toward Bacteroides, which was mainly promoted by HMP. Metabolome analysis of stool samples from pectin-fed mice showed a different effect of the two types of pectin on the levels of short-chain fatty acids and bile acids, which was consistent with highly efficient in vivo fermentation of LMP. Analysis of serum antibody levels showed a significant increase in IgG and IgA levels by both pectins, while FACS analysis revealed a decrease of infiltrating inflammatory cells in the intestinal lamina propria by HMP. Our study revealed that the structural properties of the investigated pectins determine fermentability, effects on microbial composition, metabolite production, and modulation of immune responses. Consumption of HMP preferentially altered the gut microbiota and suppressed pro-inflammatory immune responses, suggesting a beneficial role in inflammatory diseases.

Production of biodiesel from waste fish fat through ultrasound-assisted transesterification using petro-diesel as cosolvent and optimization of process parameters using response surface methodology.

Biodiesel is a highly promising and viable alternative to fossil-based diesel that also addresses the urgent need for effective waste management. It can be synthesized by the chemical modification of triglycerides sourced from vegetable origin, animal fat, or algal oil. The transesterification reaction is the preferred method of producing biodiesel. However, the non-miscibility of alcohol and oil layer causes excessive utilization of alcohol, catalyst, and a substantial reacting time and temperature. In the current investigation, transesterification of waste fish oil was performed with petro-diesel as cosolvent, under the influence of ultrasound energy. The combination of both techniques is a unique and efficient way to minimize the mass transfer limitations considerably and hence reduces the parameters of the reaction. It is also a sincere effort to comply with the principles of green chemistry. The optimum reaction conditions were obtained using response surface methodology (RSM) that were as follows: molar ratio of methanol to oil 9.09:1, catalyst concentration of 0.97 wt%, cosolvent concentration of 29.1 wt%, temperature 60.1℃, and a reacting time 30 min. Under these listed conditions, 98.1% biodiesel was achievable, which was in close agreement with the expected result. In addition, the cosolvent removal step from the crude biodiesel was also eliminated as it could be employed as a blended fuel in CI engines.

Esterification of black bean anthocyanins with unsaturated oleic acid, and application characteristics of the product.

Esterification of anthocyanins with saturated fatty acids have been widely investigated, while that with unsaturated fatty acids is little understood. In this study, crude extract (purity âˆ¼ 35 %) of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) from black bean seed coat was utilized as reaction substrate, and enzymatically acylated with unsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid). Optimization of various reaction parameters finally resulted in the highest acylation rate of 54.3 %. HPLC-MS/MS and NMR analyses elucidated the structure of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside-oleic acid ester (C3G-OA) to be cyanidin-3-O-(6″-octadecene)-glucoside. Introduction of oleic acid into C3G improved the lipophilicity, antioxidant ability, and antibacterial activity. Further, the color and substance stability analyses showed that the susceptibility of C3G and C3G-OA to different thermal, peroxidative, and illuminant treatments were highly pH dependent, which suggested individual application guidelines. Moreover, C3G-OA showed lower toxicity to normal cell (QSG-7701) and better inhibitory effect on the proliferation of HepG2 cells than C3G, which indicated its potential anti-tumor bioactivity.

Effect of enzymatic de-esterification and RG-I degradation of high methoxyl pectin (HMP) on sugar-acid gel properties.

The influence of RG-I domains on high methoxyl pectin (HMP) sugar-acid gel properties has rarely been reported. In our work, HMP was modified by enzymatic de-esterification and degradation of RG-I domains to compare and analyze the relationship between the structure and final sugar-acid gel properties. The results showed that the degree of esterification (DE) of REP (pectin degraded by rhamnosidase) and GEP (pectin debranched by galactosidase) was the same as that of untreated HMP, whereas the DE of PMEP (pectin de-esterified by pectin methyl esterase) decreased from 59.63 % to 54.69 %. The monosaccharide composition suggested no significant changes in the HG and RG-I structural domains of PMEP. In contrast, the percentage of RG-I structural domains of REP and GEP dropped from 37 % to about 28 %, accompanied by a reduction in the proportion of the RG-I backbones and side chains. The rheological characterization of sugar-acid gels demonstrated an enhanced gel grade for PMEP and a weakened one for REP and GEP. Moreover, we constructed a correlation relationship between the fine structure of pectin and the properties of the sugar-acid gels, confirming the critical contribution of the RG-I region (especially the neutral sugar side chains) to the HMP sugar-acid gels.

Measuring risk of renewable diesel production processes using a multi-criteria decision strategy.

This study proposes measuring the risk of five alternative renewable diesel production technologies using a multi-criteria decision matrix strategy. Evaluated criteria include environmental, economic, technological, social, and process safety risks. The subjective Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) with stakeholder input provides criteria and sub-criteria weightings and the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) ranks alternatives. Alternative renewable diesel options are Green Diesel from first, second, and third-generation feedstocks, Fischer-Tropsch Diesel from second-generation biomass, and the transesterification of vegetable oils (VO) to make biodiesel. This study is a response to an earlier work measuring the sustainability of the same renewable technologies. While the previous work indicated Fischer-Tropsch Diesel as the most sustainable, this current work indicated the process as the "most risky," suggesting that risk is a significant driver of decision making over sustainability, and newly developed decision tools should address both perspectives.

Enhancing biocatalyst performance through immobilization of lipase (Eversa® Transform 2.0) on hybrid amine-epoxy core-shell magnetic nanoparticles.

Magnetic nanoparticles were functionalized with polyethylenimine (PEI) and activated with epoxy. This support was used to immobilize Lipase (Eversa® Transform 2.0) (EVS), optimization using the Taguchi method. XRF, SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, TGA, and VSM performed the characterizations. The optimal conditions were immobilization yield (I.Y.) of 95.04 ± 0.79 %, time of 15 h, ionic load of 95 mM, protein load of 5 mg/g, and temperature of 25 °C. The maximum loading capacity was 25 mg/g, and its stability in 60 days of storage showed a negligible loss of only 9.53 % of its activity. The biocatalyst demonstrated better stability at varying temperatures than free EVS, maintaining 28 % of its activity at 70 °C. It was feasible to esterify free fatty acids (FFA) from babassu oil with the best reaction of 97.91 % and ten cycles having an efficiency above 50 %. The esterification of produced biolubricant was confirmed by NMR, and it displayed kinematic viscosity and density of 6.052 mm2/s and 0.832 g/cm3, respectively, at 40 °C. The in-silico study showed a binding affinity of -5.8 kcal/mol between EVS and oleic acid, suggesting a stable substrate-lipase combination suitable for esterification.

Optimizing the enzymatic production of biolubricants by the Taguchi method: Esterification of the free fatty acids from castor oil with 2-ethyl-1-hexanol catalyzed by Eversa Transform 2.0.

The solvent-free esterification of the free fatty acids (FFAs) obtained by the hydrolysis of castor oil (a non-edible vegetable oil) with 2-ethyl-1-hexanol (a branched fatty alcohol) was catalyzed by different free lipases. Eversa Transform 2.0 (ETL) features surpassed most commercial lipases. Some process parameters were optimized by the Taguchi method (L16'). As a result, a conversion over 95% of the FFAs of castor oil into esters with lubricants properties was achieved under optimized reaction conditions (15 wt% of biocatalyst content, 1:4 molar ratio (FFAs/alcohol), 30 °C, 180 rpm, 96 h). The substrates molar ratio had the highest influence on the dependent variable (conversion at 24 h). FFAs/2-ethyl-1-hexanol esters were characterized regarding the physicochemical and tribological properties. Interestingly, the modification of the FFAs with 2-ethyl-1-hexanol by ETL increased the oxidative stability of the FFAs feedstock from 0.18 h to 16.83 h. The biolubricants presented a lower friction coefficient than the reference commercial mineral lubricant (0.052 ± 0.07 against 0.078 ± 0.04). Under these conditions, ETL catalyzed the oligomerization of ricinoleic acid (a hydroxyl fatty acid) into estolides, reaching a conversion of 25.15% of the initial FFAs (for the first time).

Amino acid application inhibits root-to-shoot cadmium translocation in Chinese cabbage by modulating pectin methyl-esterification.

The exogenous application of amino acids (AAs) generally alleviates cadmium (Cd) toxicity in plants by altering their subcellular distribution. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying AA-mediated cell wall (CW) sequestration of Cd in Chinese cabbage remain unclear. Using two genotypes of Chinses cabbage, Jingcui 60 (Cd-tolerant) and 16-7 (Cd-sensitive), we characterized the root structure, subcellular distribution of Cd, CW component, and related gene expression under the Cd stress. Cysteine (Cys) supplementation led to a reduction in the Cd concentration in the shoots of Jingcui 60 and 16-7 by 65.09 % and 64.03 %, respectively. Addition of Cys alleviated leaf chlorosis in both cultivars by increasing Cd chelation in the root CW and reducing its distribution in the cytoplasm and organelles. We further demonstrated that Cys supplementation mediated the downregulation of PMEI1 expression and improving the activity of pectin methyl-esterase (PME) by 17.98 % and 25.52 % in both cultivars, respectively, compared to the Cd treatment, resulting in an approximate 12.00 %-14.70 % increase in Cd retention in pectin. In contrast, threonine (Thr) application did not significantly alter Cd distribution in the shoots of either cultivar. Taken together, our results suggest that Cys application reduces Cd root-to-shoot translocation by increasing Cd sequestration in the root CW through the downregulation of pectin methyl-esterification.

Batch and continuous enzymatic interesterification of beef tallow: Interesterification degree, reaction relationship, and physicochemical properties.

The relationship between batch and continuous enzymatic interesterification was studied through enzymatic interesterification of beef tallow. The interesterification degree (ID) during the batch reaction was monitored based on triacylglycerol composition, sn-2 fatty acid composition, solid fat content, and melting profile and was described by an exponential model. A relationship equation featuring reaction parameters of the two reations was established to predict the ID and physicochemical characteristics in continuous interesterification. The prediction of the ID based on triacylglycerol composition was reliable, with an R2 value greater than 0.85. Interesterification produced more high-melting-point components for both reactions, but the acyl migration in the batch-stirring reactor was much greater, resulting in faster crystallization, a more delicate crystal network, and lower hardness. The relationship equation can be employed to predict the ID, but the prediction of physicochemical properties was constrained by the difference in acyl migration degree between the two reactions.

Comparison on emulsifying and emulgelling properties of low methoxyl pectin with varied degree of methoxylation from different de-esterification methods.

Low methoxyl pectin (LMP) with different degree of methoxylation (DM, 40-50 %, 20-30 % and 5-10 %) were prepared from commercially available citrus pectin using high hydrostatic pressure assisted enzymatic (HHP-pectin) and traditional alkaline (A-pectin) de-esterification method. The results showed that both de-esterification methods and DM exhibited LMPs with varied physicochemical, structural, and functional properties. As the DM decreased, LMP showed a decrease in molecular weight (Mw), while an increase in negative charges and rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) ratio, accompanied with better emulsion stability, emulsion gel strength and water-holding properties. Relative to A-pectin, HHP-pectin had higher Mw and lower RG-I side chain ratio, contributing to its better thermal stability, apparent viscosity, and emulgelling properties. HHP-pectin with lower DM (5-10 %) showed superior thickening, emulsifying and emulgelling properties, while that with higher DM (40-45 %) had superior thermal stability, which provided alternative for de-esterification and targeted structural modification of pectin.

Direct conversion of apricot seeds into biodiesel.

Using edible lipids for biodiesel production has been criticized, causing biodiesel production from inedible food resources to be desirable. Lipid extraction must be prioritized to produce biodiesel using an acid/base-catalyzed transesterification process, but this conversion process suffers from technical reliability. Therefore, this study introduced non-catalytic conversion of oil-bearing biomass into biodiesel. Apricot seeds were used as a model compound (oil content 44.3 wt%). The non-catalytic transesterification of apricot seed oil recovered 98.28 wt% biodiesel at 360 °C for 1 min, while alkali-catalysis of apricot seed oil recovered 91.84 wt% at 63 °C for 60 min. The direct conversion of apricot seeds into biodiesel was attempted. The trends in the yields of biodiesel from apricot seeds and seed oil obtained by non-catalytic transesterification as a function of reaction temperature were similar. The yield of biodiesel from apricot seed was 43.06 wt%, suggesting that 97.20 wt% of lipids were converted into biodiesel.

Technoeconomic and carbon footprint analysis of simulated industrial scale biodiesel production process from mixed macroalgal and non-edible seed oil using sulphonated zinc doped recyclable biochar catalyst.

The present research explored the sustainable production of biodiesel from mixed oils of marine macroalgae and non-edible seeds using a sulphonated Zinc doped recyclable biochar catalyst derived from coconut husk. The maximum biodiesel conversion of 94.8 % was yielded with optimized conditions of 10:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 4.8 % biochar catalyst concentration, 54.5 ℃ temperature and 87.4 min reaction time. A techno-economic assessment provided a favourable return on investment (ROI) of 21.59 % and 4.63 years of reimbursement period, with a calculated minimum selling price of 0.81 $/kg of produced biodiesel. The carbon footprint analysis results estimated an annual emission of 752.07 t CO2 which corresponds to 0.088 kg CO2 emission per kg of biodiesel produced from the simulated process. The study on economic viability and environmental consciousness of biodiesel production not only paves the way for a greener and sustainable future while also contributing to low carbon footprint.

Effects of pectin's degree of methyl esterification on TLR2-mediated IL-8 secretion and tight junction gene expression in intestinal epithelial cells: influence of soluble TLR2.

This study investigates the anti-inflammatory effects of pectins with different degrees of methyl esterification (DM) on intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) expressing low and high levels of TLR2. It also studies the influence of soluble TLR2 (sTLR2) which may be enhanced in patients with inflammatory bowel syndrome on the inflammation-attenuating effects of pectins. Also, it examines the impact of pectins on tight junction gene expression in IECs. Lemon pectins with DM18 and DM88 were characterized, and their effects on TLR2-1-induced IL8 gene expression and secretion were investigated in low-TLR2 expressing Caco-2 and high-TLR2 expressing DLD-1 cells. The results demonstrate that both DM18 and DM88 pectins can counteract TLR2-1-induced IL-8 expression and secretion, with more pronounced effects observed in DLD-1 cells expressing high levels of TLR2. Furthermore, the presence of sTLR2 does not interfere with the attenuating effects of low DM18 pectin and may even support its anti-inflammatory effects in Caco-2 cells. The impact of pectins and sTLR2 on tight junction gene expression also demonstrates cell-type-dependent effects. Overall, these findings suggest that low DM pectins possess potent anti-inflammatory properties and may influence tight junction gene expression in IECs, thereby contributing to the maintenance of gut homeostasis.

Harnessing the Carrier Solvent Complexity of Crop Biostimulant Liquid Formulations Using Locally Available Transesterified Waste Cooking Oil: Economic Recycling, Solvent Performance, and Bioefficacy Evaluation.

Locally sourced waste cooking oil (WCO) was successfully base-catalyzed and transesterified with methanol into biodiesel to produce biostimulant (nitrobenzene) formulations and replace high-risk carrier solvents. Ideal synthesis conditions were composed of 1% NaOH, MeOH/oil molar ratio (6:1), reaction temperature (65 °C), a 3 h mixing rate, and 97-98% yields. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified five fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) including palmitic, linoleic, oleic, stearic, and eicosenoic acids with high solubilization and olfactory characteristics. Using anionic and nonionic emulsifiers in conjunction with recycled biodiesel, a stable emulsifiable concentrate (NB 35% EC) was created with greater storage stability, wettability, and spreading capabilities than those of organic solvent-based ones. The highest counts of fruits per plant (35.80), flowers per plant (60.00), yield per plant (3.56 kg), and yield per hectare (143.7 quintals) were recorded in treatments with 4 mL/L biodiesel-based EC in field bioassays. In addition to having superior biosafety, FAME-based EC exhibits minimal phytotoxicity and is less harmful to aquatic creatures. It was discovered that the average cost-effectiveness was 5.49 times less expensive than solvent-based EC. In order to utilize waste oils as a locally obtained, sustainable alternative solvent with a wide solubilization range, low ecotax profile, circular economy, and high renewable carbon index, this integrative technique was expanded.

Application of waste derived magnetic acid-base bifunctional CoFe/biochar/CaO as an efficient catalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil.

The loss of active components, weak acid resistance, and low recover efficiency of common Ca-based catalysts limited its further development and application. In this study, to effectively produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO), a green and recyclable magnetic acid-base bifunctional CoFe/biochar/CaO catalyst was prepared from sargassum and river snail shell waste via hydrothermal method. The catalysts' structure and properties were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), CO2/NH3 temperature programmed desorption (CO2/NH3 TPD), etc., The prepared catalyst mainly consisted of the carbon skeleton, CoFe alloy, and CaO. CoFe alloy provided catalyst's ferromagnetism for magnetic separation as well as acid sites for transesterification of WCO. Ca and other metal species with nanoscale (∼5.64 nm) were dispersively anchored on sargassum biochar surface, thereby leading to good catalytic activity (99.21% biodiesel yield) and stability (91.70% biodiesel yield after the 5th cycle). In addition, response surface methodology-Box-Behnken design (RSM-BBD) revealed the optimal operational conditions were 16:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, 3 wt% catalyst dosage, 73 °C for 157 min. The maximum biodiesel yield predicted value was 98.29% and the experimental value was 99.21%, indicating good satisfaction of the established model. Moreover, the quality of WCO biodiesel met the ASTM D6751 standards. This study benefits magnetic waste-derived acid-base bifunctional catalysts for the disposal of WCO towards sustainable biodiesel production.

The analysis of classical, polynomial regression and cubic spline mathematical models in hemp biodiesel optimization: an experimental comparison.

Post-pandemic inflationist pressures, climate changes and extremes, regional conflicts, and soaring food prices caused the food crisis to increase rapidly worldwide. This global problem directs producers and researchers to use oils used as feedstock in biodiesel production effectively. In this context, it is important to assay the transesterification parameters and conduct new optimization studies to increase biodiesel yield. In this study, methyl ester was produced from hemp oil by transesterification using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Next, classical optimization study was carried out to determine the effects of catalyst amount, alcohol:oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction time variables on biodiesel yield. Secondly, the cubic spline mathematical model (CSMM) and polynomial regression mathematical model (PRMM) were applied to the first data of this optimization. Among these optimization methods, the utmost biodiesel yield registered was 96.115% at hemp seed oil (HSO):methanol molar ratio of 5.59:1, catalyst concentration of 0.531 wt%, reaction temperature of 42.5 °C, reaction time of 62.1 min, and agitation intensity of 600 rpm at PRMM. Some vital fuel properties obtained from HSO biodiesels as a result of three optimizations satisfied the EN 14214 standard. The results illustrated that the optimal yields from CSMM and PRMM are 0.765% and 1.065% higher, respectively, according to the maximum efficiency obtained from the classical optimization. The outcomes showed that CSMM and PRMM are cost-effective, easy to handle, and promising new approaches.

Degree of methyl esterification: A key factor for the encapsulation of icaritin with pectin.

Pectin is a promising nano-carrier. The degree of methyl esterification (DM) influences the physiochemical properties of pectin. However, the effect of DM on the encapsulation capacity of pectin remains unclear. In this work, low methyl-esterified pectin (LMP) and high methyl-esterified pectin (HMP) were prepared. The molecular weight, rheological properties of these pectins with various DM levels were determined. Then icaritin/pectin micelles (IPMs) were prepared using HMP and LMP. Notably, higher loading capacities (18.75-20.12 %) were observed in HMP-IPMs compared to LMP-IPMs (15.72-16.64 %). Furthermore, LMP-IPMs demonstrated a DM-dependent reduction in particle sizes, ranging from 449 to 527 nm. In contrast, the particle sizes of HMP-IPMs varied between 342 and 566 nm, with smaller particle sizes observed in HMP-IPMs at higher DM levels. A significant positive correlation was found between DM and the formation of IPMs, including encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, Zeta potential, and polydispersity index. Alkali de-esterification showed a weak impact on the pectin structure. Hydroxyl groups like 7-OH and 5-OH of icaritin might be involved in the formation of IPMs. The hydrogen-bond interactions between pectin and icaritin could be enhanced as DM increased.

Comparative life cycle cost analysis of bio-valorized magnetite nanocatalyst for biodiesel production: Modeling, optimization, kinetics and thermodynamic study.

An active, high surface area, recyclable, magnetic, basic, iron oxide-based nanocatalyst was developed from banana leaves waste and used for microwave-assisted transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel. According to the Hammett indicator, the catalyst has a high total basicity of 15 < H < 18.4. After optimization through the response surface methodology, the reaction allows 96.5 % biodiesel yield in the presence of 24:1 methanol to soybean oil molar ratio, 6 wt% BLW@Fe3O4, 0.5 h at 65 °C. The magnetic nature of the catalyst improves reusability for up to 6 cycles. Thermodynamic analyses showed that transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel is an endothermic reaction. Moreover, the catalyst has the potential to reduce biodiesel production costs by utilizing abundant biomass waste materials. The calculated cost for 1 kg of catalyst is $1.14, while the biodiesel's cost per kg produced in this work is merely $1.05, showing high commercial viability.

Methyl oleate for plant protection products formulations: Enzymatic synthesis, reaction kinetics and application testing.

This study presents a solvent-free enzymatic approach for the synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), such as methyl oleate, for their application as adjuvant in plant protection products (PPP) formulations. The direct esterification between free fatty acid and methanol was optimized to achieve 98% acid conversion. The kinetics of this conversion was accurately described by a simple second order mechanism and non-linear regression was applied to calculate the rate constants of the forward and backward reactions based on full progress curves data. The rate constant of the forward reaction (synthesis) was one order of magnitude higher than the backward reaction (hydrolysis) and favored formation of the target methyl ester product, rendering the removal of water unnecessary. Enzymatically synthesized methyl oleate was benchmarked against the chemically synthesized compound, showing matching results in terms of stability, spreadability and emulsifying capacity in plant care formulations. The enzymatic synthesis of FAMEs under solvent free conditions allows to achieve a safer and more sustainable character for carrier solvents in PPP formulations.