Locating hygienic medicine within the intellectual history of hygiene: cases of E. W. Lane and T. R. Allinson.

Nineteenth century hygiene might be a confusing concept. On the one hand, the concept of hygiene was gradually becoming an important concept that was focused on cleanliness and used interchangeably with sanitation. On the other hand, the classical notions of hygiene rooted in the Hippocratic teachings remained influential. This study is about two attempts to newly theorise such a confusing concept of hygiene in the second half of the century by Edward. W. Lane and Thomas R. Allinson. Their works, standing on the borders of self-help medical advice and theoretical treatises on medical philosophies, were not exactly scholarly ones, but their medical thoughts - conceptualised as hygienic medicine - show a characteristically holistic medical view of hygiene, a nineteenth-century version of the reinterpretation of the nature cure philosophy and vitalism. However, the aim of this study is to properly locate their conceptualisations of hygienic medicine within the historical context of the second half of the nineteenth century rather than to simply introduce the medical ideas in their books. Their views of hygiene were distinguished not only from the contemporary sanitary approach but also from similar attempts by contemporary orthodox and unorthodox medical doctors. Through a chronological analysis of changes in the concept of hygiene and a comparative analysis of these two authors' and other medical professionals' views of hygiene, this paper aims to help understand the complicated picture of nineteenth-century hygiene, particularly during the second half of the century, from the perspective of medical holism and reductionism.

Beyond the limit: carrying capacity (K) and the holism/reductionism debate.

As the debate about holism and reductionism in ecology has ebbed in the last twenty years, this article aims to reassess the traditional opposition between holistic and reductionist epistemologies during the development of population biology. The history of the notion of carrying capacity, the upper demographic limit of a viable population, will be analyzed as a paradigmatic case of the progressive imposition of reductionist strategies, from both an epistemological and a semantic point of view, since the middle of the twentieth century. Then, Richard Looijen's reduction of the carrying capacity concept to the niche partitioning theory will be assessed and rebuked for both empirical and logical reasons. Eventually, some recent "weak" and "hard" emergent conceptualizations of the notion of carrying capacity, in logistic map models or in coupled niche-population systems, will be presented in order to show how they call into question the nature and the use of the notion of carrying capacity as a predefined ecological limit.

Warren Felt Evans: 19th-century mystic, wounded healer, and seminal theorist-practitioner of mind cure.

The Methodist-Episcopalian minister-turned-physician and philosopher of healing Warren Felt Evans (1817-1889) was one of the earliest practitioners of mental healing, also known as "mind cure." Originating in New England in the second half of the 19th century, mind cure spread through the country in the 1880s. Drawing from Evans's unpublished journals, I recount his struggles with chronic ill health and his turn to the Quietist mystics and Swedenborg, and then to the mesmerist-turned-mental-healer P. P. Quimby to procure both healing for his ills and philosophical sanctification for his soul. The transformational route Evans traveled reflects the mythico-religious journey of the wounded healer who suffers through a creative illness on the way to becoming a healer himself. The article places Evans and the mind cure movement within late-19th-century Boston's medical and cultural milieu. Evans's approach to psychological healing is explored by focusing on his mind-body healing philosophy and mental therapeutics as described in his first 2 mind cure books The Mental Cure (1869) and Mental Medicine (1872). (PsycINFO Database Record

Hippocrates' complaint and the scientific ethos in early modern England.

Among the elements of the modern scientific ethos, as identified by R.K. Merton and others, is the commitment of individual effort to a long-term inquiry that may not bring substantial results in a lifetime. The challenge this presents was encapsulated in the aphorism of the ancient Greek physician, Hippocrates of Kos: vita brevis, ars longa (life is short, art is long). This article explores how this complaint was answered in the early modern period by Francis Bacon's call for the inauguration of the sciences over several generations, thereby imagining a succession of lives added together over time. However, Bacon also explored another response to Hippocrates: the devotion of a 'whole life', whether brief or long, to science. The endorsement of long-term inquiry in combination with intensive lifetime involvement was embraced by some leading Fellows of the Royal Society, such as Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. The problem for individuals, however, was to find satisfaction in science despite concerns, in some fields, that current observations and experiments would not yield material able to be extended by future investigations.

[Helminthology according to the philosophy of science of Imre Lakatos]. / La helmintología según la filosofía de la ciencia de Imre Lakatos.

Lakatos's philosophy of science has been used for different branches of biology, however this has not been true for helminthology. Therefore, this article examines the possibility of using his methodology of scientific research programmes (SRP) for reconstructing the history of the discipline of helminthology. It is upheld that the first SRP in biology was inaugurated by Aristotle, and its protective belt included a small group of auxiliary hypotheses referring to helminths. This programme continued up until the 17th century, when two rival programmes in helminthology arose: the internalist and the externalist. After the second half of the 19th century the internalist SRP was abandoned, while the externalist considerably broadened its protective belt during the 20th century. The internalist programme was abandoned due to the crucial experiments of Küchenmeister, which permitted the consolidation of the externalist SRP.

De la ruptura o el vínculo entre razón y locura en Descartes, Foucault y Derrida / On rupture or the bond between reason and madness in Descartes, Foucault and Derrida

Este trabajo propone pensar la relación entre locura y razón, pero a su vez problematizar su supuestamente clara diferencia a partir de tres lecturas interconectadas. Como texto que nos servirá de punto de partida, discutiremos las Meditaciones Metafísicas de René Descartes. A continuación, revisaremos la crítica al mismo que se encuentra en el capítulo «El gran encierro» de la Historia de la locura en la época clásica de Michel Foucault, donde se presenta la consideración de que en la Modernidad, de la mano de Descartes, se habría llevado a cabo un «violento encierro filosófico de la locura». En tercer lugar, se recogerá la discusión de esta tesis por parte de Jacques Derrida en el segundo capítulo de La escritura y la diferencia, «Cogito e historia de la locura», cuya propuesta se opone a la teoría de que tal encierro haya tenido lugar y, en todo caso, de que se trate de un hecho histórico. Se atenderá también brevemente a la respuesta de Michel Foucault a su contemporáneo en el apéndice de la segunda edición de su Historia de la locura, «Mi cuerpo, ese papel, ese fuego». En suma, se presenciará el debate entre estos dos pensadores en torno al párrafo en el que Descartes, al menos, menciona la posibilidad de la locura (AU)

This article proposes thinking the relation between madness and reason, but at the same time problematizing its allegedly evident difference taking into account three interconnected works. As the starting point we will discuss Descartes’ Metaphysical Meditations. Afterwards, we will review the critique made to it in the chapter «the Great Confinement» of Michel Foucault’s Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, where it is argued that it was during the Modern Age, with Descartes, when a «violent philosophical confinement of madness» was carried out. Thirdly, we will assess Jacques Derrida’s discussion of this thesis in the second chapter of Writing and Difference, «Cogito and the History of Madness», whose proposal refuses the theory according to which such confinement would have occurred, and if anything, that it is not a historical fact. We will also take notice of Foucault’s counterargument to Derrida in the appendix to the second edition of his History of Madness, «My body, this paper, this fire». To sum up, we will meet the debate between these two authors around Descartes’ paragraph in which he, at least, mentions the possibility of madness (AU)

La helmintología según la filosofía de la ciencia de Imre Lakatos / Helminthology according to the philosophy of science of Imre Lakatos

RESUMEN A pesar de que en distintas ramas de la biología se ha utilizado la filosofía de la ciencia de Lakatos, no se ha hecho esto con la helmintología. Aquí utilizamos su metodología de programas de investigación científica (PIC) para reconstruir la historia de la disciplina en cuestión. Sostenemos que el primer PIC de la biología lo inauguró Aristóteles, y en su cinturón protector hay un pequeño grupo de hipótesis auxiliares que se refieren a los helmintos. Ese programa se mantuvo vigente hasta el siglo XVII, época en la que surgen dos PIC rivales en helmintología: el internalista y el externalista. A partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, el PIC internalista fue abandonado, mientras que el externalista amplió considerablemente su cinturón protector durante el siglo XX. El abandono del PIC internalista se debió a los experimentos cruciales de Küchenmeister, que permitieron la consolidación del PIC externalista.

ABSTRACT Lakatos’s philosophy of science has been used for different branches of biology, however this has not been true for helminthology. Therefore, this article examines the possibility of using his methodology of scientific research programmes (SRP) for reconstructing the history of the discipline of helminthology. It is upheld that the first SRP in biology was inaugurated by Aristotle, and its protective belt included a small group of auxiliary hypotheses referring to helminths. This programme continued up until the 17th century, when two rival programmes in helminthology arose: the internalist and the externalist. After the second half of the 19th century the internalist SRP was abandoned, while the externalist considerably broadened its protective belt during the 20th century. The internalist programme was abandoned due to the crucial experiments of Küchenmeister, which permitted the consolidation of the externalist SRP.

The historical origins of the vegetative state: Received wisdom and the utility of the text.

The persistent vegetative state (PVS) is one of the most iconic and misunderstood phrases in clinical neuroscience. Coined as a diagnostic category by Scottish neurosurgeon Bryan Jennett and American neurologist Fred Plum in 1972, the phrase "vegetative" first appeared in Aristotle's treatise On the Soul (circa mid-fourth century BCE). Aristotle influenced neuroscientists of the nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, Xavier Bichat and Walter Timme, and informed their conceptions of the vegetative nervous system. Plum credits Bichat and Timme in his use of the phrase, thus putting the ancient and modern in dialogue. In addition to exploring Aristotle's definition of the "vegetative" in the original Greek, we put Aristotle in conversation with his contemporaries-Plato and the Hippocratics-to better apprehend theories of mind and consciousness in antiquity. Utilizing the discipline of reception studies in classics scholarship, we demonstrate the importance of etymology and historical origin when considering modern medical nosology.

Spinoza to Freud: The unraveling of a psycho-analytical perspective on moral responsibility and law.

The status that Spinoza and Freud assign to law has some convergence, for both embrace the positivity, the mere conventionality and utility, of law and eschew any real or eternal moral norms (that is, they thoroughly reject the Natural Law tradition) that law might capture and embody. In addition, both put forth a biological account of human nature, rather than a theological one or even quasi-theological one, and that biological nature is the springboard in each case for defining the overall purpose of law. In addition, for both, human biology is a source of the sociality, the psychic attachments, that make an emotional union of individuals into a group possible. Nevertheless, it is in the specific elaborations of human biology that we can discern the beginning of a parting of the ways, for in their conceptions of human nature and the nature of nature Freud and Spinoza diverge in significant respects.

Reasons for relativism: Feyerabend on the 'Rise of Rationalism' in ancient Greece.

This paper argues that essential features of Feyerabend's philosophy, namely his radicalization of critical rationalism and his turn to relativism, could be understood better in the light of his engagement with early Greek thought. In contrast to his earlier, Popperian views he came to see the Homeric worldview as a genuine alternative, which was not falsified by the Presocratics. Unlike socio-psychological and externalist accounts my reading of his published and unpublished material suggests that his alternative reconstruction of the ancient beginnings of the Western scientific tradition motivate and justify his moderate Protagorean relativism.

[Research Biomedical Ethics and Practical Wisdom]. / Ética Biomédica y Prudencia.

As is well known, in the field of Biomedical Ethics some methodological proposals have been put forward. They try to provide some guidelines in order to take proper decisions. These methodologies are quite useful insofar as they supply reasons for action, but they are essentially insufficient. In fact, taking a good decision requires a special skill that goes beyond sheer technique, and this skill is traditionally called practical wisdom. Not in the usual and more outlying sense of sheer caution, but in the more central one of phronesis or prudentia. Although it is not a new notion, it usually appears blurred in biomedical decision-making theory, playing the wrong role, or in a marginal or indefinite way. From this postulate, we will try to make a double analysis. First, we will try to show the need for a proper understanding of the core role that phronesis plays in decision making. Second, we will try to get the original meaning of Aristotelian phronesis back. For reasons of space, in this paper the second question will be just partially addressed.

Features analysis of five-element theory and its basal effects on construction of visceral manifestation theory.

OBJECTIVE: To study the Chinese ancient five-element theory, one of the philosophical foundations of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) theory construction, from the perspective of comtemporary cognitive science, and to reveal the important functions of five-element theory in the construction of TCM theory. METHODS: The basic effects of five-element theory in the construction of TCM theory are intensively expounded and proved from the following aspects: embodiment of five-element theory in cognizing the world, quasi axiom of five-element theory in essence, classification thery of family resemblance and deductive inference pattern of five-element theory, and the openness and expansibility of five-element theory. RESULTS: If five-element theory is considered a cognitive pattern or cognitive system related to culture, then there should be features of cognitive embodiment in the cognitive system. If five-element theory is regarded as a symbolic system, however, then there should be a quasi-axiom for the system, and inferential deduction. If, however, five-element theory is taken as a theoretical constructive metaphor, then there should be features of opening and expansibility for the metaphor. CONCLUSION: Based on five-element theory, this study provides a cognitive frame for the construction of TCM (a medicine that originated in China, and is characterized by holism and treatment based on pattern identification differentiation) theory with the function of constructing a concept base, thereby implying further research strategies. Useful information may be produced from the creative inferences obtained from the incorporation of five-element theory.

[Globalization and its historical location. Some remarks with the example of Ernst Haeckel]. / Globalisierung in ihrer historischen Verortung. Einige Anmerkungen am Beispiel Ernst Haeckels.

Globalization, regarded here as the extensive and profound transformation process of modernity, manifests itself to us in the way it impacts the here and now. However, it also has a prehistory with regard to both its anthropogenic effects on nature and intellectual controversies. This prehistory is important for understanding how we deal with this phenomenon. Due to the important roles science plays in the process of globalization and the, in no way insignificant, repercussions it has on the sciences themselves, this article aims to present in detail a prehistory that pointedly illustrates how we perceive our modernity, also with regard to its discrepancies which result from the various underlying conditions. In its attempt to analyze the question of contemporary perception in an exemplary way, the article below looks back at the intellectual situation prevailing around 1900. It aims to clarify lines of influence and controversial issues connected with Ernst Haeckel, particularly in terms of the mutual interconnectedness and influence of intra-academic changes and cultural reflections.

[Scientific revolution and embryology: rejection or transformation of antiquity? A comparison between the procreation teachings of Cesare Cremonini, William Harvey und René Descartes]. / Wissenschaftliche Revolution und Embryologie: Ablehnung oder Transformation der Antike? Ein Vergleich zwischen den Zeugungslehren Cesare Cremoninis, William Harveys und René Descartes.

In this paper I address the issue of the theoretical and epistemological status of embryology at the rise of the so-called "Scientific Revolution" (also in the first half of the seventeenth-century) and raise the question, in what sense and to what extent the historiographical concept of "Scientific Revolution" is applicable to the domain of embryology. To achieve this aim I compare the theories of three protagonists of the medical, scientific and philosophical debate of that age, namely Cesare Cremonini, William Harvey and René Descartes, who had very different views on the world structure and human nature and a very different concept of science, but who shared, as concerns embryological issues, an epigenetic conception of the development of the embryo. Their theories are discussed and compared in light of following questions: 1) What do Cremonini's, Harvey's and Descartes's embryological theories exactly aim to?; 2) In developing their theories, do these thinkers deal explicitly or implicitly with the Aristotelian and the Galenic embryological paradigm?; 3)Do they refer polemically to the Aristotelian and the Galenic tradition and what theoretical and/or rhetorical function have these polemical references?; 4) Do the embryological theories of Cremonini, Harvey and Descartes reflect the century-long dispute between "(Aristotelian) philosophers" and "(Galenic) doctors"?; 5) How is represented embryology as a 'scientific' and/or 'theoretical' domain? And what relationship between concepts of 'truth', 'research', 'tradition' and 'scientific progress' is implied or proposed in the embryological works of these three thinkers? What kind of use do Cremonini, Harvey and Descartes make of the argumenta ex ratione and of those ex experientia?

[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker - supporter of the concept of the East German movement in favor of self-organization during the political turning point 1989/90]. / Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker--Unterstützer für Konzepte der ost-deutschen Bürgerbewegung pro Selbstorganisation in der "Wende" 1989/90.

The luminosity of Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker's holistic thinking in the former German Democratic Republic (DDR) is reviewed. Broad-minded academics sought, in accordance with the modern paradigm of self-organization, beyond the ideological template for ways out of the dead end of incrustations of society and innovation blockages under the constraints of a dictatorship. Right after the fall of the wall, Weizsäcker willingly backed a "community of free researchers for self-organization" (Freie Forschungsgemeinschaft Selbstorganisation, FFGSO). This group, conceived as a nonpartisan "think tank" of civil activism, is also discussed. At a number of its meetings Weizsäcker debated the dangers of ideologically influenced science. The effectiveness of the dual leadership at his own Starnberg Institute, for instance, was stymied by the tensions arisen out of such conflicting aims. Against the voluntaristic anticipations of the mainstream in sociology, precisely that system proved to be more viable that was meant to be overcome: faulty and purportedly futureless capitalism. Weizsäcker repudiated social prognoses made in the absence of rules for their falsification resp. verification. Weizsäcker acted as a leading figure at the FFGSO's Potsdam conference, opened on 30 Mar. 1990, on the "DDR--and afterwards?". Its intention was in order to trigger a nationwide discussion of scientific scenarios in designing German unification in the face of gross practical disparities between East and West Germany. The Trust Agency inspired by the FFGSO at the Round Table between opposition and old government was supposed to transfer the national public property "Volkseigentum" of the DDR into private property of the East German citizens, to enable them to realize a role as subject through self-organization. At the group's request, Weizsäcker mediated the readiness by the Lutheran World Federation to assume the role of ombudsman in anticipation of conflicts of interest within the Trust Agency in processing the total assets of an entire country. Weizsäcker also opened contacts with competent earlier fellows from his Starnberg institute on practical cooperative projects at the beginning of the 1990s.