From images to physiology: A strange paradox at the origin of modern neuroscience.

In 1873 Camillo Golgi published an article that contained the description of entire nerve cells stained in black with a new histological procedure, the black reaction. He subsequently organized all the observations made with this method in a book published in 1885. On the basis of these studies, Golgi developed a physiological model of the brain that was influenced by a holistic conception he had in mind. He named this theory diffuse nervous network, assuming that the axonal prolongations were fused (or intimately interlaced) in a diffuse web along which the nervous impulse propagated. One of the scientists who quickly understood the importance of Golgi's results was the Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal. However, when he studied the brain with the black reaction, he had in mind the idea of the nerve cells as independent "units" (named neurons by Waldeyer, 1891). Thus Ramón y Cajal quickly became the champion of the neuron theory that paradoxically developed thanks to the same black reaction used by Golgi for the formulation of the opposite diffuse nervous network theory. The controversy between Golgi and Ramón y Cajal represents a dramatic instance of a theory-driven perception of the same morphological evidence.

[Renaissance medicine and the discovery of the lesser circulation: the role of Michael Servetus (1511-1553)] / La medicina del rinascimento e la scoperta della circolazione minore: il ruolo di Michele Serveto (1511­1553)

Human urine is currently the subject of biomedical investigations as a potential therapeutic resource and it continues to be used in remedies in different cultures and societies, including the Spanish culture. In this study we gather etnomedical knowledge about urotherapy and determine their associated symbolisms in Spain. A literature overview and a case study were carried out to compile urine-based remedies and as a direct analysis of symbolic systems. Urotherapy is widespread in Spanish folk medicine. Among the 204 collected remedies, those related to treatment of diseases or skin conditions predominate (63%). Remedies have been reported for the treatment of skin diseases such as eczema, chloasma, alopecia, etc. to treat or alleviate burns, chilblains, wounds or skin chapping, and as a treatment of venomous bites. Most of the collected remedies have an associated naturalist symbolism, based on local traditions and the transmission of empirical initial knowledge. The use of urine in Spain is a result of the interaction of two types of practice: a local and traditional urotherapy, rural and with a utilitarian purpose, and a technical urotherapy, limited to an urban environment and a naturopathic medicine.

Terapéutica para tratar el cólera en Yucatán, México (1833-1853). Medicina fisiológica, herbolaria local y régimen moral / Therapy for the treatment of cholera in Yucatan, México (1833-1853). Physiological medicine, local herbalist and moral regiment

Este artículo analiza los pilares que sostuvieron la práctica terapéutica en Yucatán para tratar a los enfermos de cólera durante los brotes registrados antes del descubrimiento de su etiología bacteriana, uno en 1833 y otro en 1853. Debido en parte a una importante evolución del pensamiento médico-científico y a la divulgación de los principios del positivismo, en esta época se vivió un profundo proceso de transformación que significó, entre otras cosas, nuevas percepciones sobre la enfermedad y esquemas distintos a los coloniales para afrontar las emergencias y procurar la salud pública. Sin embargo, ante la falta de consensos en cuanto al origen del cólera y sus medios de propagación, el gobierno estatal promovió la difusión de diferentes técnicas terapéuticas empleadas en Europa o Estados Unidos, que se sumaron al conocimiento local respecto al empleo medicinal de la herbolaria, retomando también antiguas ideas sobre la incidencia de las conductas morales individuales en la propensión al contagio y eventualmente a la muerte (AU)

This article analyzes the pillars that supported the therapeutic practice in Yucatán to treat cholera patients during the outbreaks preceding the discovery of its bacterial etiology, one in 1833 and another in 1853. Due partly to a significant evolution in scientific and medical ideas, and the dissemination of the principles of positivism, a profound process of transformation was experienced, which brought, among other things, new perceptions of the disease as well as schemes different from the colonials to deal with emergencies and ensure public health. However, given the lack of consensus about the origin of cholera and its means of propagation, the government promoted different therapeutic techniques practiced in Europe or the United States, alongside local knowledge on the medicinal use of herbs, while also reviving old ideas on the impact of individual moral behavior in the tendency to contract the disease and eventually die (AU)

["A change in medical thinking?" or "over-eager literary activity?" August Bier, homeopathy and the Nobel Prize 1906-1936]. / Ein "Umschwung des medizinischen Denkens" oder "eine übereifrige literarische Tätigkeit"? August Bier, die Homöopathie und der Nobelpreis 1906-1936.

This essay explains the nomination and evaluation procedure for the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Its research is based on original files and on the example of August Karl Gustav Bier (1861-1949). It discusses the minutes of the Nobel Committee for physiology or medicine, which are kept in the Nobel Archives, as well as the unusually high number of nominations of August Bier and the nominations submitted by him; it also describes the reasons why August Bier, in the end, never received the Nobel Prize. The essay focuses mainly on the reception of Bier's homeopathic theses by the Nobel Prize Committee and his nominators.

Development of Anatomophysiologic Knowledge Regarding the Cardiovascular System: From Egyptians to Harvey / Evolução do Conhecimento Anatomofisiológico do Sistema Cardiovascular: dos Egípcios a Harvey

Our knowledge regarding the anatomophysiology of the cardiovascular system (CVS) has progressed since the fourth millennium BC. In Egypt (3500 BC), it was believed that a set of channels are interconnected to the heart, transporting air, urine, air, blood, and the soul. One thousand years later, the heart was established as the center of the CVS by the Hippocratic Corpus in the medical school of Kos, and some of the CVS anatomical characteristics were defined. The CVS was known to transport blood via the right ventricle through veins and the pneuma via the left ventricle through arteries. Two hundred years later, in Alexandria, following the development of human anatomical dissection, Herophilus discovered that arteries were 6 times thicker than veins, and Erasistratus described the semilunar valves, emphasizing that arteries were filled with blood when ventricles were empty. Further, 200 years later, Galen demonstrated that arteries contained blood and not air. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Greco-Roman medical knowledge about the CVS was preserved in Persia, and later in Islam where, Ibn Nafis inaccurately described pulmonary circulation. The resurgence of dissection of the human body in Europe in the 14th century was associated with the revival of the knowledge pertaining to the CVS. The main findings were the description of pulmonary circulation by Servetus, the anatomical discoveries of Vesalius, the demonstration of pulmonary circulation by Colombo, and the discovery of valves in veins by Fabricius. Following these developments, Harvey described blood circulation.

O conhecimento da anatomofisiologia do Sistema Cardiovascular (SCV) progride desde o quarto milênio AC. No Egito (3500 AC), acreditava-se que um conjunto de canais conectava-se ao coração, transportando ar, urina, ar, sangue e a alma. Mil anos após, o Corpo Hipocrático, na escola médica de Kós, estabeleceu o coração como o centro do SCV, definindo algumas características deste órgão. O SCV transportava sangue via ventrículo direito pelas veias, e o pneuma via ventrículo esquerdo pelas artérias. Duzentos anos depois, em Alexandria, com o aparecimento da dissecção anatômica do corpo humano, Herophilus descobriu que as artérias eram seis vezes mais espessas que as veias, enquanto que Erasistratus descreveu as válvulas semilunares, enfatizando que as artérias eram preenchidas por sangue quando o ventrículo esquerdo se esvaziava. Duzentos anos depois, Galeno demonstrou que as artérias continham sangue, não ar. Com o declínio do Império Romano, todo o conhecimento médico Greco-romano do SCV foi preservado na Pérsia, e posteriormente no Islã, onde Ibn-Nafis descreveu incompletamente a circulação pulmonar. Aqui, deve-se enfatizar a incompleta descrição da circulação pulmonar por Ibn-Nafis. A ressurgência da dissecção do corpo humano na Europa no século XIV é associada ao renascimento do conhecimento do SCV. Os principais marcos foram a descrição da circulação pulmonar por Servetus, as descobertas anatômicas de Vesalius, a demonstração da circulação pulmonar por Colombo, e a descoberta das válvulas das veias por Fabricius. Tal contexto abriu o caminho para Harvey descobrir a circulação do sangue.

A short commentary on Aristotle's scientific legacy and his definition of the physiologist.

The roots of physiology - on the basis of a systematic study of the human body's functions and their correlation to anatomy - date back to the works of Aristotle. The pupil of Plato and the tutor of Alexander the Great was a one-man university, and his contributions to the medical sciences have been immense. His surviving works highlight the first serious approach towards the rejection of metaphysical and mythological thought, and have: (i) demonstrated a deep appreciation for a systematic, non-metaphysical study of the natural world, (ii) set the foundations of comparative and human anatomy, (iii) established the first (indirect) definition of the "physiologist", and (iv) exercised a dominant influence upon the subsequent history of Hellenistic, European and Arabic Medicine. The current letter provides a short commentary on the historical account of Physiology as a scientific field and underlines the unique legacy that Aristotle has provided us with.

Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of modern medicine and cardiology.

Galen (129-217) was the ultimate authority on all medical subjects for 15 centuries. His anatomical/physiological concepts remained unchallenged until well into the 17th century. He wrote over 600 treatises, of which less than one-third exist today. The Galenic corpus is stupendous in magnitude; the index of word-entries in it contains 1300 pages. Galen's errors attracted later attention, but we should balance the merits and faults in his work because both exerted profound influences on the advancement of medicine and cardiology. Galen admonished us to embrace truth as identified by experiment, warning that everyone's writings must be corroborated by directly interrogating Nature. His experimental methods' mastery is demonstrated in his researches, spanning every specialty. In his life-sustaining schema, the venous, arterial, and nervous systems, with the liver, heart, and brain as their respective centers, were separate, each distributing through the body one of three pneumata: respectively, the natural, the vital, and the animal spirits. He saw blood carried both within the venous and arterial systems, which communicated by invisible "anastomoses," but circulation eluded him. The "divine Galen's" writings, however, contributed to Harvey's singular ability to see mechanisms completely differently than other researchers, thinkers and experimentalists. Galen was the first physician to use the pulse as a sign of illness. Some representative study areas included embryology, neurology, myology, respiration, reproductive medicine, and urology. He improved the science and use of drugs in therapeutics. Besides his astounding reputation as scientist-author and philosopher, Galen was deemed a highly ethical clinician and brilliant diagnostician.

Development of anatomophysiologic knowledge regarding the cardiovascular system: from Egyptians to Harvey.

Our knowledge regarding the anatomophysiology of the cardiovascular system (CVS) has progressed since the fourth millennium BC. In Egypt (3500 BC), it was believed that a set of channels are interconnected to the heart, transporting air, urine, air, blood, and the soul. One thousand years later, the heart was established as the center of the CVS by the Hippocratic Corpus in the medical school of Kos, and some of the CVS anatomical characteristics were defined. The CVS was known to transport blood via the right ventricle through veins and the pneuma via the left ventricle through arteries. Two hundred years later, in Alexandria, following the development of human anatomical dissection, Herophilus discovered that arteries were 6 times thicker than veins, and Erasistratus described the semilunar valves, emphasizing that arteries were filled with blood when ventricles were empty. Further, 200 years later, Galen demonstrated that arteries contained blood and not air. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Greco-Roman medical knowledge about the CVS was preserved in Persia, and later in Islam where, Ibn Nafis inaccurately described pulmonary circulation. The resurgence of dissection of the human body in Europe in the 14th century was associated with the revival of the knowledge pertaining to the CVS. The main findings were the description of pulmonary circulation by Servetus, the anatomical discoveries of Vesalius, the demonstration of pulmonary circulation by Colombo, and the discovery of valves in veins by Fabricius. Following these developments, Harvey described blood circulation.

Al-Akhawayni's description of pulmonary circulation.

Since antiquity, heart function and the mechanism of blood circulation within the human body have been the focus of attention of scientists from different parts of the world. Over the passage of time, the theories and works of these scientists have resulted in the achievement of today's knowledge of circulation. The medieval Persian scholar, Al-Akhawayni Bukhari (?-983AD), is among the physicians who investigated both the anatomy and the physiology of the human body. Al-Akhawayni describes the mechanism of pulmonary circulation in his only extant book, "Hidayat al-Muta`llemin fi al-Tibb" (A Scholar's Guide to Medicine) with which he made a contribution to the development of knowledge regarding this mechanism in the medicine of the Islamic world. In this paper, Al-Akhawayni's viewpoints on anatomy and the function of the heart, its related vessels, and also pulmonary circulation will be briefly discussed.

From the "physiologus" to physiology.

The roots of physiology - on the basis of anatomical thinking and mind, which is fundamental idea of the European medicine - go back to Reformation. The following short data from the abundant history of physiology from the ancient speculative natural philosophers to the modern experimental science of our days shows that the history of Reformation and Protestantism on the one side, and the significance of Protestant physicians in the history of Reformation and Protestantism on the other side, deserve our special attention in the history of medicine.

Cardiocentric neurophysiology: the persistence of a delusion.

Aristotle is well known to have taught that the brain was a mere coolant apparatus for overheated blood and to have located the hegemonikon in the heart. This teaching was hotly disputed by his immediate successors in the Alexandrian Museum, who showed that the brain played the central role in psychophysiology. This was accepted and developed by the last great biomedical figure of classical antiquity - Claudius Galen. However, Aristotle's cardiocentric theory did not entirely disappear and this article traces its influence through the Arabic physicians of the Islamic ascendancy, into the European Middle Ages where Albertus Magnus' attempt to reconcile cardiocentric and cerebrocentric physiology was particularly influential. It shows how cardiocentricity was sufficiently accepted to attract the attention of, and require refutation by, many of the great names of the Renaissance, including Vesalius, Fernel, and Descartes, and was still taken seriously by luminaries such as William Harvey in the mid-seventeenth century. The article, in rehearsing this history, shows the difficulty of separating the first-person perspective of introspective psychology and the third-person perspective of natural science. It also outlines an interesting case of conflict between philosophy and physiology.

["Purified empiricism": Johann Christian Reil's (1759-1813) attempts at a foundation of medicine in relation to its tradition, kantianism, and speculative philosophy]. / "Geläuterte Empirie": Johann Christian Reils (1759-1813) Versuche zur Grundlegung der Medizin im Spannungsfeld von Tradition, Kantianismus und spe- kulativer Philosophie.

Johann Christian Reil's (1759-1813) importance lies in his theoretical approach to medicine. Following Kant in his early work, he attempts to combine medical experience with an underlying conceptual structure. This attempt is directed against both the chaotic empiricism of traditional medicine and speculative theories such as vitalism. The paper starts from his early reflections on the concept of a life force, which he interprets in the way of a non-reductive materialism. In the following, the basic outlines of his Theory of Fever will be shown. The Theory is a systematic attempt at finding a new foundation for diagnosis and therapy on the basis of the concept of fever, which is understood as modification of vital processes. The paper ends with a discussion of his later work, which has remained controversial so far. It shows that the combination of practical empiricism and scientific theory remained rather unstable in this early phase of the development of modern medicine.

[Female anthropology, physiology and disease in ancient Christian writers]. / Antropologia, fisiologia femminile e malattie di donne negli antichi scrittori Cristiani.

Ancient Christian sources are rich in reference to the anthropology and physiology of the female. Christianity in the first centuries had multiple positions as concerns the doctrinal thoughts as well as the social practices. Christian anthropological doctrine has been developed along two exegetical lines, hinging on Genesis 1-3: the first views the human being as a whole psycophysical entity and thereby highlights the protological inferiority of the woman; the second, spiritual and Platonic, emphasizes the inner self and thus, in theory, is more equalitarian. Ancient philosophical theories regarding human generation, in particular those ofAristotle and the Stoics, are used, along with medical notions, by Christian theologians to elaborate the dogma of incarnation. However, in certain cases, as with the post partum virginity of Maria, medical theories are totally put aside. The stories recounting the miracles offer the possibility of understanding medical practices offemale conditions and the emotive reactions of the women.

Seeing your way to health: the visual pedagogy of Bess Mensendieck's physical culture system.

This essay examines the images and looking practices central to Bess M. Mensendieck's (c.1866-1959) 'functional exercise' system, as documented in physical culture treatises published in Germany and the United States between 1906 and 1937. Believing that muscular realignment could not occur without seeing how the body worked, Mensendieck taught adult non-athletes to see skeletal alignment and muscular movement in their own and others' bodies. Three levels of looking practices are examined: didactic sequences; penetrating inspection and appreciation of physiological structures; and ideokinetic visual metaphors for guiding movement. With these techniques, Mensendieck's work bridged the body cultures of German Nacktkultur (nudism), American labour efficiency and the emerging physical education profession. This case study demonstrates how sport historians could expand their analyses to include practices of looking as well as questions of visual representation.