Elevated genetic risk for multiple sclerosis emerged in steppe pastoralist populations.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuro-inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease that is most prevalent in Northern Europe. Although it is known that inherited risk for MS is located within or in close proximity to immune-related genes, it is unknown when, where and how this genetic risk originated1. Here, by using a large ancient genome dataset from the Mesolithic period to the Bronze Age2, along with new Medieval and post-Medieval genomes, we show that the genetic risk for MS rose among pastoralists from the Pontic steppe and was brought into Europe by the Yamnaya-related migration approximately 5,000 years ago. We further show that these MS-associated immunogenetic variants underwent positive selection both within the steppe population and later in Europe, probably driven by pathogenic challenges coinciding with changes in diet, lifestyle and population density. This study highlights the critical importance of the Neolithic period and Bronze Age as determinants of modern immune responses and their subsequent effect on the risk of developing MS in a changing environment.

Indigenous Australian genomes show deep structure and rich novel variation.

The Indigenous peoples of Australia have a rich linguistic and cultural history. How this relates to genetic diversity remains largely unknown because of their limited engagement with genomic studies. Here we analyse the genomes of 159 individuals from four remote Indigenous communities, including people who speak a language (Tiwi) not from the most widespread family (Pama-Nyungan). This large collection of Indigenous Australian genomes was made possible by careful community engagement and consultation. We observe exceptionally strong population structure across Australia, driven by divergence times between communities of 26,000-35,000 years ago and long-term low but stable effective population sizes. This demographic history, including early divergence from Papua New Guinean (47,000 years ago) and Eurasian groups1, has generated the highest proportion of previously undescribed genetic variation seen outside Africa and the most extended homozygosity compared with global samples. A substantial proportion of this variation is not observed in global reference panels or clinical datasets, and variation with predicted functional consequence is more likely to be homozygous than in other populations, with consequent implications for medical genomics2. Our results show that Indigenous Australians are not a single homogeneous genetic group and their genetic relationship with the peoples of New Guinea is not uniform. These patterns imply that the full breadth of Indigenous Australian genetic diversity remains uncharacterized, potentially limiting genomic medicine and equitable healthcare for Indigenous Australians.

Adult patient diagnosed with NADSYN1 associated congenital NAD deficiency and analysis of NAD levels to be published in: European Journal of Medical Genetics.

INTRODUCTION: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is an essential cosubstrate/coenzyme in multiple cellular redox processes and a substrate in several non-redox reactions. NADSYN1 encodes NAD synthetase 1, an enzyme in the NAD de novo synthesis pathway and the Preiss-Handler pathway, and biallelic pathogenic variants causes NAD deficiency associated with vertebral, cardiac, renal and limb defects. Szot et al. and Kortbawi et al. have reported a total of seven patients with NADSYN1 associated congenital NAD deficiency disorder with the oldest patient being seven years old. PATIENT DATA: We present a male patient age 30 with a height of 130 cm and numerous skeletal malformations including segmentation defects of the spine, rib anomalies and unequal leg length as well as bilateral ptosis, cleft palate and asymmetric dysmorphic facial features. The patient underwent surgery for an aortic stenosis due to a bicuspid valve. No malformations of the kidneys or urinary tract were identified. RESULTS: Trio exome sequencing revealed a homozygous missense variant in NADSYN1 c.1717G > A (p.Ala573Thr). Both parents were unaffected carriers of the variant. Analysis of NAD levels showed that the patient had a lower NAD pool compared to his unaffected siblings. The NAD pool rose approximately 25% after supplementation with nicotinamide, a NAD precursor for the salvage pathway. CONCLUSION: The variant was previously reported in four patients and functional analyses by Szot et al. support the pathogenicity of the variant. We report an adult patient with NADSYN1 associated congenital NAD deficiency disorder and expand the phenotypic spectrum. We also present analysis of the NAD levels before and after supplementation with nicotinamide.

Reductionism, Vitalism, and Holism.

The reductionist strategy, adopted by physics and chemistry, which was based on the effort to reduce the concepts necessary for the statement of scientific explanations to a minimum, was attractive to those who worked in the biomedical field. On the other hand, the vitalistic point of view opposed mechanism, believing that there were processes in living organisms that do not obey the laws of physics and chemistry. Finally, the holistic approach is focused on the evidence that the organized whole is almost always much more than the sum of its parts, and have led to direct attention to emerging qualities in a highly organized system which is a living being.

Genetic testing for inherited colorectal cancer and polyposis, 2021 revision: a technical standard of the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG).

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the fourth most frequently diagnosed cancer and 30% of all cases of CRC are believed to have a familial component and up to one-third of these (10%) are hereditary. Pathogenic germline variants in multiple genes have been associated with predisposition to hereditary CRC or polyposis. Lynch syndrome (LS) is the most common hereditary CRC syndrome, caused by variants in the mismatch repair (MMR) genes MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2 and is inherited in a dominant manner. Heritable conditions associated with colonic polyposis include familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) associated with APC pathogenic variants, MUTYH-associated polyposis (MAP) caused by biallelic MUTYH pathogenic variants, and polymerase proofreading-associated polyposis (PPAP) caused by POLE or POLD1 pathogenic variants. Given the overlapping phenotypes of the cancer syndromes along with the limited sensitivity of using clinical criteria alone, a multigene panel testing approach to diagnose these conditions using next-generation sequencing (NGS) is effective and efficient. This technical standard is not recommended for use in the clinic for patient evaluation. Please refer to National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) clinical practice guidelines to determine an appropriate testing strategy and guide medical screening and management. This 2021 edition of the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) technical standard supersedes the 2013 edition on this topic.

Partners in care.

This festschrift contribution, written for my colleague and mentor John Graham, reflects on geneticist-genetic counselor interactions in clinical care, samples of alternative models of care for pediatric and general genetic counselors, and avenues for expanding access to genetic healthcare services utilizing genetic counselors.

New problems of a new health system: the creation of a national public policy of rare diseases care in Brazil (1990s-2010s). / Nuevos problemas de un nuevo sistema de salud: la creación de una política pública nacional de atención de enfermedades raras en Brasil (1990-2014).

This study discusses actors and institution movements leading to the disclosure in 2014 of Resolution 199 by the Brazilian Ministry of Health, which establishes the National Policy for the Comprehensive Care of Persons with Rare Diseases. Taking as sources the mainstream newspapers, drafts law, and secondary literature on the subject, we begin our analysis in the early 1990s when the first patient associations were created in Brazil - mainly for claiming more funds for research on genetic diseases - and arrive at the late 2010s when negotiations for a national policy are taking place in the National Congress. Resolution 199 is part of an ongoing process and the path towards its disclosure and the complications that followed have given us elements to discuss contemporary aspects of the Brazilian public health. Based on the references of the history of the present time and the social studies of science, we argue that two aspects have been fundamental to creating a national policy: framing different illnesses within the terminology "rare diseases" and the construction of a public perception about the right of health which is guaranteed by the 1988 Brazilian Constitution.

En este trabajo se analizan los movimientos de actores e instituciones que llevaron a la promulgación, en 2014, de la Resolución 199 del Ministerio de Salud de Brasil, que establece la Política Nacional de Atención Integral a las Personas con Enfermedades Raras. Tomando como fuentes los principales periódicos, proyectos de ley y bibliografía secundaria sobre el tema, comenzamos nuestro análisis a principios de la década de 1990 con la creación de las primeras asociaciones de pacientes en Brasil, para reclamar fundamentalmente más fondos para la investigación de enfermedades genéticas, y llegamos a fines de la década de 2010 con las negociaciones para una política nacional. La Resolución 199 es parte de un proceso en curso, en el que el camino hacia la promulgación y las complicaciones posteriores nos dan elementos para discutir aspectos actuales de la salud pública brasileña. Sobre la base de la historia del tiempo presente y los estudios sociales de la ciencia, argumentamos que hay dos aspectos que han sido fundamentales para crear una política nacional: enmarcar diferentes enfermedades en la terminología "enfermedades raras" y la construcción de una percepción pública sobre el derecho a la salud, que se garantiza en la Constitución brasileña de 1988.

Identificação de doenças genéticas na Atenção Primária à Saúde: experiência de um município de porte médio no Brasil / Identification of genetic diseases in Primary Health Care: experience of a medium county in Brazil / Identificación de enfermedades genéticas en la Atención Primaria de Salud: experiencia de un municipio mediano en Brasil

Problema: Embora individualmente raras, somadas, as doenças genéticas têm prevalência global estimada de 31,5 a 73,0 por 1.000 indivíduos. Além disto, doenças genéticas e defeitos congênitos representam a segunda causa de mortalidade infantil no Brasil. Diante deste cenário, foi instituída a Política Nacional de Atenção Integral às Pessoas com Doenças Raras no Sistema Único de Saúde. Esta política prevê funções específicas para Atenção Primária à Saúde (APS) que incluem diagnóstico precoce e mapeamento de pessoas com ou sob-risco de desenvolver doenças genéticas raras e/ou defeitos congênitos para encaminhamento regulado. Essa experiência objetivou colaborar com o desenvolvimento de métodos para o reconhecimento de indivíduos com ou sob-risco de desenvolver doenças genéticas na APS. Métodos: Através de visitas domiciliares e por meio do preenchimento de uma ficha específica, realizou-se busca ativa de casos de doença genética e/ou defeito congênito em uma amostra probabilística aleatória, representativa de uma Unidade de Saúde da Família de um município brasileiro de porte médio. Resultados: Foram investigados 295 domicílios, totalizando 1.160 indivíduos e 238 casais. A média de filhos por casal foi de 2,7, a frequência de consanguinidade foi 3,8% e de abortamento espontâneo foi 8,7%. Foram identificadas 29 pessoas (2,5%) com doenças congênitas, 11 (0,9%) com deficiências auditivas, 10 (0,9%) com deficiência mental e 6 (0,5%) com déficits visuais importantes. Atraso no desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor foi relatado em 8,8% das crianças e adolescentes. Doze indivíduos (1%) possuíam câncer e 9,6% relataram história familiar positiva para câncer. Conclusão: Os profissionais da APS estão em posição privilegiada para identificar e organizar uma rede de cuidados para indivíduos com doenças genéticas e/ou defeitos congênitos. A utilização sistemática de instrumentos que facilitem o reconhecimento de fatores de risco e de situações suspeitas pode ser uma estratégia útil a ser incorporada pela APS.

Problem: Although individually rare, when added together, genetic diseases have an estimated overall prevalence of 31.5 to 73.0 per 1,000 individuals. In addition, genetic diseases and birth defects represent the second cause of infant mortality in Brazil. In this context, the National Policy on Comprehensive Care of People with Rare Diseases was established in the Brazilian National Health System. This policy provides specific Primary Health Care (PHC) assignments that includes early diagnosis and mapping people with or at risk of developing rare genetic disease and/or birth defects for regulated referral. This experience aimed to collaborate with developing methods for recognizing individuals with or at risk of developing genetic diseases in PHC. Methods: Through home visits and filling out a specific form, an active search for cases of genetic disease and/or birth defect was carried out in a random probabilistic sample, representative of a Family Health Unit in a Brazilian medium-sized county. Results: A total of 295 households were surveyed, totalling 1,160 individuals and 238 couples. The mean number of children per couple was 2.7, the inbreeding rate was 3.8% and the frequency of miscarriage was estimated in 8.7%. Twenty-nine individuals (2.5%) with congenital disorders, 11 (0.9%) with hearing impairment, 10 (0.9%) with mental disability, and 6 (0.5%) with significant visual deficits were identified. Neuropsychomotor developmental delay was presented in 8.8% of the children and teenagers. Twelve individuals (1%) had cancer and 9.6% reported a positive family history of cancer. Conclusion: PHC professionals are in a privileged position to identify and organize a care network for individuals with genetic diseases and/or birth defects. The systematic use of instruments that facilitate the recognition of risk factors and suspicious situations can be a useful strategy to be incorporated by PHC.

Genética na atenção primária à saúdeRev Bras Med Fam Comunidade. Rio de Janeiro, 2020 Jan-Dez; 15(42):23472INTRODUÇÃOEstima-se que existam cerca de 6 a 7 mil doenças genéticas diferentes e, embora a maior parte destas sejam individualmente raras, somadas, as doenças genéticas têm prevalência global estimada de 31,5 a 73,0 por 1.000 indivíduos.1 Doenças genéticas podem ser congênitas ou podem se manifestar ao longo da vida, impactando nas diferentes faixas etárias: alterações cromossômicas estão presentes em cerca de 50% dos abortamentos espontâneos de primeiro trimestre; entre recém-nascidos, 3 a 5% apresentam algum defeito congênito, determinado total ou parcialmente por fatores genéticos; deficiências físicas, intelectuais e sensoriais em crianças e jovens frequentemente fazem parte do quadro clínico de síndromes genéticas; nos adultos, aproximadamente 5 a 10% dos cânceres possuem forte componente genético hereditário.1,2 Doenças genéticas podem ser hereditárias, sendo transmitidas ao longo das gerações de uma família, ou não hereditárias, ocorrendo por "mutação de novo".2 São sabidamente fatores de risco para doenças genéticas idades materna e/ou paterna avançadas, consanguinidade e história familiar positiva para doenças genéticas previamente reconhecidas.2-5 Além destes, a exposição de gestantes a teratógenos é fator de risco para defeitos congênitos.6Problema: Aunque individualmente raras, las enfermedades genéticas combinadas tienen prevalencia general estimada de 31.5 a 73.0 por 1,000 individuos. Además, enfermedades genéticas y anomalías congénitas representan la segunda causa de mortalidad infantil en Brasil. Ante este escenario, se instituyó la Política Nacional de Atención Integral a Personas con Enfermedades Raras en el Sistema Único de Salud. Esta Política proporciona funciones específicas para Atención Primaria de Salud (APS) que incluyen diagnóstico precoz y mapeo de personas con o en riesgo de desarrollar enfermedades genéticas raras y/o anomalías congénitas para derivación regulada. Esta experiencia tuvo como objetivo colaborar con el desarrollo de métodos para el reconocimiento de individuos con o en riesgo de desarrollar enfermedades genéticas en la APS. Método: Mediante visitas domiciliarias y completando un formulario específico, se realizó búsqueda activa de casos de enfermedades genéticas y/o defectos congénitos en una muestra probabilística aleatoria, representativa de una Unidad de Salud Familiar en un municipio brasileño de tamaño mediano. Resultados: Se investigaron un total de 295 hogares, 1,160 personas y 238 parejas. El número promedio de hijos por pareja fue de 2.7, la frecuencia de consanguinidad 3.8% y el aborto espontáneo 8.7%. Se identificaron 29 personas (2.5%) con enfermedades congénitas, 11 (0.9%) con discapacidad auditiva, 10 (0.9%) con discapacidad mental y 6 (0.5%) con déficits visuales significativos. Se informó retraso psicomotor en 8.8% de los niños y adolescentes. Doce personas (1%) tenían cáncer y 9.6% reportaron antecedentes familiares de cáncer. Conclusión: Los profesionales de la APS están en posición privilegiada para identificar y organizar una red de atención para personas con enfermedades genéticas y/o defectos congénitos. El uso sistemático de instrumentos que facilitan el reconocimiento de factores de riesgo y situaciones sospechosas puede ser una estrategia útil para la APS.

Nuevos problemas de un nuevo sistema de salud: la creación de una política pública nacional de atención de enfermedades raras en Brasil (1990-2014) / New problems of a new health system: the creation of a national public policy of rare diseases care in Brazil (1990s-2010s)

RESUMEN En este trabajo se analizan los movimientos de actores e instituciones que llevaron a la promulgación, en 2014, de la Resolución 199 del Ministerio de Salud de Brasil, que establece la Política Nacional de Atención Integral a las Personas con Enfermedades Raras. Tomando como fuentes los principales periódicos, proyectos de ley y bibliografía secundaria sobre el tema, comenzamos nuestro análisis a principios de la década de 1990 con la creación de las primeras asociaciones de pacientes en Brasil, para reclamar fundamentalmente más fondos para la investigación de enfermedades genéticas, y llegamos a fines de la década de 2010 con las negociaciones para una política nacional. La Resolución 199 es parte de un proceso en curso, en el que el camino hacia la promulgación y las complicaciones posteriores nos dan elementos para discutir aspectos actuales de la salud pública brasileña. Sobre la base de la historia del tiempo presente y los estudios sociales de la ciencia, argumentamos que hay dos aspectos que han sido fundamentales para crear una política nacional: enmarcar diferentes enfermedades en la terminología "enfermedades raras" y la construcción de una percepción pública sobre el derecho a la salud, que se garantiza en la Constitución brasileña de 1988.

ABSTRACT This study discusses actors and institution movements leading to the disclosure in 2014 of Resolution 199 by the Brazilian Ministry of Health, which establishes the National Policy for the Comprehensive Care of Persons with Rare Diseases. Taking as sources the mainstream newspapers, drafts law, and secondary literature on the subject, we begin our analysis in the early 1990s when the first patient associations were created in Brazil - mainly for claiming more funds for research on genetic diseases - and arrive at the late 2010s when negotiations for a national policy are taking place in the National Congress. Resolution 199 is part of an ongoing process and the path towards its disclosure and the complications that followed have given us elements to discuss contemporary aspects of the Brazilian public health. Based on the references of the history of the present time and the social studies of science, we argue that two aspects have been fundamental to creating a national policy: framing different illnesses within the terminology "rare diseases" and the construction of a public perception about the right of health which is guaranteed by the 1988 Brazilian Constitution.

Qualifying and quantifying the precision medicine rhetoric.

BACKGROUND: With the rise of precision medicine efforts worldwide, our study objective was to describe and map the emerging precision medicine landscape. A Google search was conducted between June 19, 2017 to July 20, 2017 to examine how "precision medicine" and its analogous terminology were used to describe precision medicine efforts. Resulting web-pages were reviewed for geographic location, data type(s), program aim(s), sample size, duration, and the key search terms used and recorded in a database. Descriptive statistics were applied to quantify terminology used to describe specific precision medicine efforts. Qualitative data were analyzed for content and patterns. RESULTS: Of the 108 programs identified through our search, 84% collected only biospecimen(s) and, of those that collected at least two data types, 42% mentioned both Electronic Health Records (EHR) and biospecimen. Given the majority of efforts limited to biospecimen(s) use, genetic research seems to be prioritized in association with precision medicine. Roughly, 54% were found to collect two or more data types, which limits the output of information that may contribute to understanding of the interplay of genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors. Over half were government-funded with roughly a third being industry-funded. Most initiatives were concentrated in the United States, Europe, and Asia. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to map and qualify the global precision medicine landscape. Our findings reveal that precision medicine efforts range from large model cohort studies involving multidimensional, longitudinal data to biorepositories with a collection of blood samples. We present a spectrum where past, present, and future PM-like efforts can fall based on their scope and potential impact. If precision medicine is based on genes, lifestyle and environmental factors, we recommend programs claiming to be precision medicine initiatives to incorporate multidimensional data that can inform a holistic approach to healthcare.

The Genomic Medicine Integrative Research Framework: A Conceptual Framework for Conducting Genomic Medicine Research.

Conceptual frameworks are useful in research because they can highlight priority research domains, inform decisions about interventions, identify outcomes and factors to measure, and display how factors might relate to each other to generate and test hypotheses. Discovery, translational, and implementation research are all critical to the overall mission of genomic medicine and prevention, but they have yet to be organized into a unified conceptual framework. To fill this gap, our diverse team collaborated to develop the Genomic Medicine Integrative Research (GMIR) Framework, a simple but comprehensive tool to aid the genomics community in developing research questions, strategies, and measures and in integrating genomic medicine and prevention into clinical practice. Here we present the GMIR Framework and its development, along with examples of its use for research development, demonstrating how we applied it to select and harmonize measures for use across diverse genomic medicine implementation projects. Researchers can utilize the GMIR Framework for their own research, collaborative investigations, and clinical implementation efforts; clinicians can use it to establish and evaluate programs; and all stakeholders can use it to help allocate resources and make sure that the full complexity of etiology is included in research and program design, development, and evaluation.

Registry of ocular anomalies among patients with genetic disorders attending the clinical genetics department at the National Research Center in Egypt.

BACKGROUND: The congenital abnormalities of eyes are a major cause of visual impairment throughout the world. Prevention of visual impairment due to congenital and infantile abnormalities of eyes is very important. The aim of this study is to evaluate the frequency and types of congenital ocular anomalies among patients with genetic disorders. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This is a retrospective study that was conducted in the National Research Center, Egypt at the Clinical Genetics Department over a 4-year period. Out of 2500 patients attending the outpatient clinics, a total of 61 patients with congenital ocular malformations (2.44%) were included in this study. They underwent clinical and genetic assessments. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Isolated ocular malformations were found in 70.5% while complex ocular anomalies were found in 29.5%. A total of 37.7% of the patients had a known recognizable syndrome, 24.6% of the patients were classified as having metabolic disorders and 37.7% of the patients were classified as having isolated disorders. Chromosomal abnormalities were found in 4.9% of the patients. Congenital cataract was the most frequent feature in syndromic, metabolic, and isolated disorders. Our study elucidates the significance of the early detection of ocular anomalies for appropriate diagnosis of genetic disorders.

Genetic counsellors in Sweden: their role and added value in the clinical setting.

Genetic testing is becoming more commonplace in general and specialist health care and should always be accompanied by genetic counselling, according to Swedish law. Genetic counsellors are members of the multi-disciplinary team providing genetic counselling. This study examined the role and added value of genetic counsellors in Sweden, using a cross-sectional on-line survey. The findings showed that the genetic counsellors added value in the clinical setting by acting as the 'spider-in-the-web' regarding case management, having a more holistic, ethical and psychological perspective, being able to offer continuous support and build a relationship with the patient, and being more accessible than medical geneticists. The main difference between a genetic counsellor and medical geneticist was that the doctor had the main medical responsibility. Thus genetic counsellors in Sweden contribute substantially to the care of patients in the clinical genetic setting.

Unidades de Desarrollo Infantil, Neuropediatría, Genética clínica y Dismorfología: Atención integrada como factor clave / Child Development, Neuropediatries, Clinieal Geneties and Dysmorphology Units: Comprehensive care as a key factor

En este capítulo describimos brevemente la práctica diaria en las Unidades de Desarrollo Infantil, Neuropediatría, Genética clínica, y Dismorfología. Enumeramos las situaciones de riesgo y patologías más frecuentemente atendidas, y hacemos especial hincapié en la creación de equipos multidisciplinares. Estos equipos son imprescindibles para el diagnóstico preconcepcional y prenatal. Un aspecto clave de nuestra actividad es la detección precoz y prevención de las discapacidades en la infancia. Se requiere para ello una atención coordinada entre los servicios y recursos para una intervención temprana, lo que ofrecemos a través de un proceso de atención integrada centrado en las necesidades de los niños y sus familias. Este proceso incluye en este momento también niños y niñas y sus familias con enfermedades poco frecuentes (AU)

In this chapter we describe briefly the daily practice in Units of Child Development, Pediatric Neurology, Clinical Genetics and Dysmorphology. We list the situations of risk and pathologies most often served, and we make special emphasis on the creation of multidisciplinary teams. These teams are essential for preconception and prenatal diagnosis. A key aspect of our activity is the early detection and prevention of disabilities in children. Resources and services coordination tasks are required for early intervention, what we offer through a process of integrated care centered on the needs of children and their families. This process also includes children and their families with rare diseases at this time (AU)

Salgen de Cuba: Una Red de Informática Provincial para Servicios Genéticos a Mujeres Embarazadas y Recién nacidos / Cubas Salgen: A Provincial Informatics Network for Genetic Services to Pregnant Women and Newborns

The Sancti Spíritus Provincial Medical Genetics Network has been using the Salgen IT platform since 2009 for health care, administrative and research activities concerning pregnant mothers and newborns. The network uses the national Infomed backbone to provide real-time connection between community-based polyclinics in primary health care and the Provincial Medical Genetics Reference Center. The platform has records for 23,025 pregnant women and sequential clinical data on genetic risk assessment in early pregnancy, first trimester ultrasound, sickle cell anemia screening, alpha-fetoprotein levels, cytogenetic antenatal diagnosis, second trimester ultrasound, delivery and newborn characteristics, neonatal metabolic screening, and infant clinical assessment. The system makes health care results immediately available and provides health alerts to enable timely preventive care for pregnant women. It also provides guidelines for processes and practices, and streamlines administrative and monitoring activities through statistical reports. The database generates indicators for assessing fetal growth and applies international standards for antenatal ultrasound quality control. Salgen provides a new source of information for medical research and knowledge management, and its use in this case fulfills Cuba's criteria for an integrated health services network(AU)

Maritime route of colonization of Europe.

The Neolithic populations, which colonized Europe approximately 9,000 y ago, presumably migrated from Near East to Anatolia and from there to Central Europe through Thrace and the Balkans. An alternative route would have been island hopping across the Southern European coast. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed genome-wide DNA polymorphisms on populations bordering the Mediterranean coast and from Anatolia and mainland Europe. We observe a striking structure correlating genes with geography around the Mediterranean Sea with characteristic east to west clines of gene flow. Using population network analysis, we also find that the gene flow from Anatolia to Europe was through Dodecanese, Crete, and the Southern European coast, compatible with the hypothesis that a maritime coastal route was mainly used for the migration of Neolithic farmers to Europe.