[The birthing chair, obstetric bed and gynecological chair in obstetrics and gynecology in Russia of XVIII-XX centuries].

The purpose of the study is to investigate material culture of obstetrics in New and Modern history of Russia. The most important objective of research is to involve into scientific circulation Russian empirical material in order to study transformation of culture of childbirth during transition from traditional to biomedical model of childbirth exemplified by material culture items (maternity beds, chairs, armchairs). The key approaches were those of historical anthropology, social history of medicine, theory of social control and medicalization. The methods of content analysis, narrative and interpretive analysis were applied to analyze empirical data. In the Russian folk tradition included no such special devices as maternity beds and birth chairs that was explained by dominance of vertical maternity pose. The first birth chairs were brought into Russia by foreign midwives. With development of clinical obstetrics horizontal position of woman in labor was approving that was conditioned by convenience of physicians. Since last quarter of the XIX century, Russian physicians began to experiment, inventing most convenient version of maternity beds and gynecological chairs. The Soviet system of obstetrics was mass and publicly accessible, but consolidated technocratic model of childbirth. In maternity wards, the "Rakhmanov obstetric bed" became widespread. The chairs were not used during childbirth, being used exclusively in gynecology. The material culture of Soviet maternity hospitals turned out to be extremely stable and conservative. In modern Russian obstetrics, with transition to holistic model of childbirth and actualization of free positioning of woman in labor, transformer beds and fitballs began to be applied to provide optimal course of birth process. The material culture of obstetrics is closely related to dominant type of maternity culture.

The Italian gynecology at the beginnings of the twentieth century: analysis of medical records from the Institute directed by Luigi Mangiagalli.

The history of the modern Italian gynecology is closely related to the figure of an enlightened clinician and passionate master, Luigi Mangiagalli (1850-1928), who, with good reason, can be considered one of the fathers of this discipline. In 1906, Mangiagalli founded the Obstetric-Gynecological Institute in Milan, directing this structure until 1925. The aim of this paper is to describe some aspects of Italian gynecology at the beginnings of the twentieth century through the analysis of 250 original medical records, dating back to the years 1906-1912, fragments of real life of women, midwives and doctors in a pioneering era of obstetrics and gynecology.

La enfermedad normal: Aspectos históricos y políticos de la medicalización del parto / The normal disease: Historical and political aspects of the medicalization of childbirth / A enfermidade normal: Aspectos históricos e políticos da medicalização do parto

Resumen Este artículo indaga sobre la construcción del saber y la práctica médica en ginecobstetricia. Se centra específicamente en las transformaciones de los significados sociales y médicos sobre el cuerpo gestante y parturiente que se dieron desde finales del siglo XIX y en el transcurso del siglo XX, y que posibilitan el proceso de medicalización, patologización y hospitalización del parto. Así mismo, se exploran los efectos que tiene el modelo médico tecnocrático de atención al binomio embarazo/parto, en cuanto a la experiencia de dichos procesos en las mujeres. El artículo concluye en la necesidad de profundizar en los elementos del paradigma médico, la formación de los profesionales y las condiciones laborales del sector de la salud, que intervienen en la problemática de la deshumanización de la atención del parto.

Abstract This article investigates the construction of medical knowledge and practice in gynecology and obstetrics. Specifically, it focuses on the transformations of social and medical meanings in the pregnant body that occurred since the end of the 19th century and during the 20th century, and which make possible the process of medicalization, pathologization and hospitalization of childbirth. Likewise, the effects that the technocratic medical model of care for the pregnancy / childbirth binomial has in terms of the experience of these processes in women are explored; concluding on the need to deepen the elements of the medical paradigm, the training of health professionals and the working conditions in the health sector that intervene in the problem of dehumanization of care.

Resumo Este artigo investiga a construção do conhecimento e da prática médica em ginecologia e obstetrícia. Especificamente, concentra-se nas transformações dos significados sociais e médicos no corpo gestante ocorridas desde o final do século XIX e durante o século XX, e que possibilitam o processo de medicalização, patologização e hospitalização do parto. Da mesma forma, são explorados os efeitos que o modelo médico tecnocrático de atenção ao binômio gravidez / parto tem em termos da experiência desses processos em mulheres; concluindo sobre a necessidade de aprofundar os elementos do paradigma médico, a formação dos profissionais de saúde e as condições de trabalho no setor da saúde que intervêm no problema da desumanização da assistência.

[Outline of Song's works on the gynecology of traditional Chinese medicine].

Because of long history and excellent medical skills, the Song gynecology is regarded as one of the "four great masters" of the gynecology in Zhejiang province. The monographs survived of Song gynecology are at least four, besides the earliest one Songshi Nüke Cuoyao(, Synopsis of Song's Gynecology)(1612), there is Songshi Bochuan Chanke Quanshu(, Complete Treatise on Gynecology of Song Bochuan), Songshi Nüke Chanhou Pian(, Chapter of Puerperal Disease from Song's Gynecology), which are formed in Qing dynasty, and Linzheng Lu(, Clinical Records) formed in the Republic of China era.And Jingli Songshi Nüke(, Meticulously Sort Out Song's Gynecology), which might belong to School of Song's gynecology, and Nüke Milu(, Secretive Records of Gynecology) were found in records. This paper excavates and sorts these 6 Song's gynecological monographs, carries out in-depth research on the changes of editions, spread and origins, and clarify the general situation of song's gynecological monographs.

A Classical Wooden Vaginal Speculum Mentioned in Old Medical Manuscripts.

The subject of this paper is the story of an ancient medical instrument. This instrument is a wooden vaginal speculum used in classical and Islamic medicine. Its drawings can be found in Abulcasis al-Zahrawi's and Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu's illustrated books of surgery.

Alfred Pischinger (1899-1983): An Austrian career in anatomy continuing through National Socialism to postwar leadership.

Despite intensified research efforts on the history of anatomy during National Socialism (NS), many aspects of this story still need further investigation. This study explores the life, work and politics of Alfred Pischinger, Chairman of the Institute for Embryology and Histology in Graz from 1936 to 1945, and in Vienna from 1958 to 1970, and is an addition to previous reports on careers in anatomy continuing through the Third Reich to the postwar period. Pischinger was an illegal NSDAP member in Austria, joined the SA in 1938, served as expert in racial hygiene, and as judge on the Genetic Health High Court of Graz. His research focus was histochemistry, but he became part of a scientific network at the University of Graz, which from 1939 on experimented on the bodies of pregnant women and their fetuses under the leadership of gynecologist Karl Ehrhardt. The researchers were among the many who took actively part in the complete exploitation and physical destruction of those considered to be "the enemy" by the NS regime. After the war, Pischinger received publicity for his work on the "scientific basis" of alternative and holistic approaches of medicine. His NS past and fetal experiments seem to have vanished from public knowledge. As systematic studies of the influence of the NS period on postwar medical education and the science of anatomy itself are still missing, this critical investigation of Alfred Pischinger's life within the relevant historic background aims to contribute to this body of knowledge.

Women Physicians in Byzantium.

Women were allowed to practice the medical profession during the Byzantine Empire. The presence of female physicians was not an innovation of the Byzantine era but actually originated from ancient Greece and Rome. The studies and the training of women doctors were apparently equivalent to those of their male colleagues. The principal medical specialties of the female doctors were gynecology and midwifery. Byzantine legislation treated relatively equally both female and male doctors. For this reason, it can be assumed that the presence of female doctors was correlated with the position of women in Byzantine society. However, there is not sufficient information in the literature to clarify whether female and male doctors used to earn equal payment for the same service.

[Integral obstetrics impeded by history? Midwives and gynaecologists through the ages]. / Integrale verloskunde gehinderd door het verleden?

There is a long and complicated history concerning the interprofessional collaboration between midwives and gynaecologists, which is still evident in current practice. Yet, in the analysis of collaborative problems, history and its lessons are often overlooked. Consequently, less effective solutions to problems may be found, because the root cause of a problem is not addressed. In this historical perspective we show how policies of the respective professions have often focused on self-preservation and competition, rather than on effective collaboration. We also highlight how the independent midwives lost and regained authorisation, status and income. Finally, using a theoretical model for interprofessional collaboration, we reflect on where history impedes the development of integral obstetrics. The focus must be averted away from professional self-interest and power struggles, but this proves to be a complex exercise.

Catholic unionism and heterodoxy in Irish Victorian Medicine: A biography of Thomas More Madden (1838-1902).

It is not easy to précis the life of gynaecologist and obstetrician Thomas More Madden. Aside from his prolific penmanship and championing of societal issues, a study of his life serves to demonstrate the crossroads at which orthodox medicine stood during the late nineteenth century - a period of transition between 'heroic' and modern health care. Reflecting this state of flux, Madden wrote several books about childbirth but he was also interested in heterodox subjects including heliotherapy and hydrotherapy. His political beliefs were no less eclectic. On one hand he was a Catholic 'Unionist', in favour of maintaining Ireland's place in the UK, but his writing was also imbued with the spirit of the Gaelic literary revival. Through his work he tried to make a case, not just for Ireland's place in the western health care tradition but also for its contribution to contemporary medicine.

[In memoriam: 100th anniversary of Professor Dragutin (Drago) Vrabnic birthday]. / Sjecanje S povodom: Prof. Dr. SC. Dragutin (Drago) Vrbanic - 100 Godina od rodenja.

Professor Dragutin (Drago) Vrbanic, MD, PhD (1912 - 1996) was an eminent figure of Croatian medicine, especially in Rijeka and Istria. His work includes a number of publications and managerial accomplishments that encouraged the development of gynaecology and obstetrics. He can also be credited for the organisation and affirmation of midwifery in Rijeka. Professor Vrbanic was highly appreciated not only for his educational and scientific achievements, but also as a valuable mentor to younger colleagues, whom he encouraged to pursue their profession to the fullest.

From conception to birth: ancient library sources of embryology and women anatomy kept in the Biblioteca Biomedica of the Università degli Studi di Firenze (Biomedical Library of Florence University).

The Biomedical Library of the University of Florence boasts a prestigious group of books collected at first in 1679 at the hospital "Santa Maria Nuova" and then continuously enriched in the course of time up today. The "Antique Collection" consists of 13 incunabola, hundreds of 16th-century books, more than one thousand books on medical subject from the 1600's, about six thousand 18th-century volumes and several large, valuable anatomical atlases. In this paper the most important, curious and fascinating books dealing with human ontogeny (from embryo generation to birth) and with female anatomy (mostly concerning pregnancy and childbirth) are reported in chronological order starting from the work of Hippocrates. Among the ancient sources useful for the reconstruction of the opinions about obstetrics there are also outstanding handbooks specifically edited for midwives. Many of these antique books are especially precious because they embed a great number of didactic pictures, some of which may compete against any modern book of anatomy, embryology and obstetric. Selected images from these books are shown.

[Examples of textual research on gynecological literature included in Yong le da dian (Yongle's Great Canon)].

Yongle's Great Canon is a series of books to be read exclusively by the emperors of the Ming Dynasty, so all of the books included are from many rare books collected in Wen Yuan Ge of early Ming Dynasty. These rare books, ranging from Song, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties or from folk sources preserve the original appearance of the ancient books almost without any changes. From a philological viewpoint, the gynecological books included in Yong le da dian are studied, proof-read and checked for its lost texts and different texts. This can serve as a basis for the reprinting and re-publishing of ancient TCM books.

[Distinguishing some falsifications in Fuqingzhunuke (Fu Qingzhu's Obstetrics and Gynecology)].

Whether Fuqingzhunuke (Fu Qingzhu's Obstetrics and Gynecology) and other books signed by FU Shan were written by himself or not is always a controversial problem. The content of Fuqingzhunuke is similar to that of Bianzhenglu (Syndrome differentiation record) of CHEN Shi-duo. For some reason, it is also said that the medical work of CHEN Shi-duo was written by FU Shan. However textual research shows that, CHEN Shi-duo had never met Fushan at all, so the medical work of Chen Shi-duo had not come from FU Shan. Some scholars believed that FU Shan concealed his name in his medical work due to his need to struggle against the Qing dynasty., but in fact, FU Shan had never lived incognito in his medical practice., The Fuqingzhunuke was edited with adjusting some sentences on the basis of Bianzhenglu The later copy editions of Fuqingzhunuke actually were supplemented and changed some content, and the author in some copies was altered to another name as well. Distinguishing the fake and genuine of Fuqingzhunuke necessitates making a comparative study of the style of writing through other works of FU Shan to arrive at a reliable conclusion.