The kinesthetic diagnosis in a homeric item of pathological heartbeat: An overview in the history of ancient greek medicine.

The Iliad, by the Greek poet Homer, is a precious mine of examples of war traumatology. In the specific case of spear wounds in the chest, the death of the Trojan warrior Alcathous is particularly interesting from the point of view of the history of medicine and the evolution of cardiology and knowledge of the heart at the time of ancient Greece. In particular this paper aims to evidence and reconstruct the main anatomical and physiological knowledge of the heart at that time. Indeed, a historical-linguistic analysis of the Greek text prompts some reflections and thoughts on the heartbeat in pathological conditions and on the function of the heart as a hematopoietic organ. Furthermore, Homer's account is a critical text that highlights the relevance of the use of the senses in the ancient description of nosological pictures and it allows us an interesting and suggestive approach to reconstruction from the historical and historiographical point of view.

Eating and Drinking Narratives in Biblical-Rabbinic Versus Graeco-Roman Writings.

The writings of ancient Greece and Rome and of biblical Israel are filled with descriptions of food. The narratives in Greek and Roman mythology and poetry often describe violent and repulsive behavior associated with food. The biblical narratives, in contrast, tend to view food in a respectful and purposeful manner. We compare and contrast some of these stories with regard to the specific themes: restraint, respect, purpose, and order. In each comparison, patterns of eating described in biblical laws and narratives will be contrasted with those emerging from Graeco-Roman stories and customs.

The ancient Greek poet Sappho and the first case report of the fight-or-flight response.

Sappho has always been regarded as one of the greatest lyric poets of ancient Greece. Her famous poem Fragment 31 V., also known as the "Ode to Jealousy", accurately describes the profound emotional reaction triggered by the sight of her beloved. The poet's precise description of each sign and symptom triggered by this arousal makes Sappho 31 V., to the best of our knowledge, the first analytical description of the acute stress response, the so-called "fight-or-flight" response, in human history. Here, Fragment 31 V. is re-read from a medical point of view, correlating the ancient Greek lyric text, the corresponding medical terms, and the underlying catecholamine mechanism of action.

The Evolution of Orthopaedics in Greece: From Ancient Heritage to Modern Times.

Greece, one of the oldest civilizations of the world, fundamentally contributed to the establishment and evolution of medicine and surgery. Undoubtedly, the foundations of the orthopaedic science are dated back to antiquity. The journey of the orthopaedic art was inaugurated with the poems of Homer and incarcerated through the practices of Hippocrates and Galen. Their deep knowledge of the musculoskeletal conditions and their treatment was generously bequeathed to humanity. This heritage acted as the catalyst for the establishment of orthopaedics in the modern Greek era. In this article, we tried to illustrate the evolution of the orthopaedic art in Greece from antiquity to modern times, reviewing the available evidence from scientific articles, books, historical manuscripts, old newspapers, and biographies. We summarize the most important events, and we identify the pioneers that shaped this new surgical branch, creating the modern Greek orthopaedic discipline.

Are we Athens or Florence? COVID-19 in historical context.

We have been here before. In 430 BCE, a plague struck Athens, killing as much as 25% of the population. In 1347 CE, the bubonic plague afflicted western Europe for 4 years, killing as much as 50% of the population. The plague of Athens led to a collapse of their religion, cultural norms and democracy. In contrast, the bubonic plague led eventually to the Renaissance, a growth of art, science and humanism. As we contend with the COVID-19 global pandemic, will we become Athens or Florence?

An innovative hippocratic cranial intervention for amaurosis in classical Greece.

BACKGROUND: Amaurosis is the sudden and acute loss of sight. Followers of Hippocrates in ancient Greece described amaurosis as a symptom of several ophthalmological pathologies, such as tumours or trauma. To treat it, surgery often was performed. METHODS: The Corpus Hippocraticum, edited by Littré, was thoroughly studied. RESULTS: The Corpus Hippocraticum describes the surgical treatment for amaurosis, which involves drilling with specialized tools (i.e. trephines) into the affected area of the temporal bone. It was believed that this procedure would help release demonic spirits and balance the bodily humours. Physiology of the era assumed that fluids in the head sometimes exerted high pressure on the optical nerve and that this fluid needed to be alleviated. CONCLUSIONS: Ancient Greeks studied cranial anatomy and understood the main principals of internal bleeding and inflammation. They treated some of the neurological symptoms that resulted from these conditions with surgery.

Medicine and Healing in the Pre-Socratic Thought - A Brief Analysis of Magic and Rationalism in Ancient Herbal Therapy.

BACKGROUND: Medicine has gone through many schools of thought before arriving in the version we see in our world today. In the beginning, it was based on religion, superstition, and magic plants for therapy. This approach was practiced for many centuries until a period of cultural development arrived. This change occurred in the ancient Greek era, when new theories on nature arose: physiokratia emerged to describe the nature of humanity, including its genesis and supporting phenomena. From the various mystical traditions, we have come to understand the natural phenomena that surround the universe, thanks to the knowledge of the "hidden causes" that emerged due to this trend of philosophical thought. METHODS: We studied ancient texts to determine the common roots between myth, therapy, and religion of medical cultures in the pre-Hippocratic era and the era of pre-Socratic philosophers. RESULTS: This study is focused on the period of time before and during pre-Socratic thought, showing that there are many similarities in the approach of therapy for various diseases in that era. The Greek contribution to Western medicine was in the development of a rational system of thought that has been transmitted in medical culture. This attempt to interpret humanity was called philosophy. Hippocrates, who came after the pre-Socratics, changed the old approach to patients. When the approach to medical diagnosis and healing changed, it affected the therapy of other ancient cultures. The ancient Greeks were influenced by other civilizations' approaches to therapy, especially with the use of plants and the different mythological and religious outlooks connected to this use. Despite the emergence of pre- Socratic rationalism, supernatural beliefs remained even when the use of herbs was no longer practiced in direct connection to their origins in myth and magic. The first detachment of magic therapy occurred later with the father of medicine, Hippocrates. CONCLUSION: The ancient Greeks invented the rationalist doctrine, which influenced medicine. Thus, the birth of philosophy, through its many stages, has influenced therapeutic patterns in medicine, especially with medicinal herbs.

Antigone: una lectura ético-musical / Antigone: an ethical-musical reading

Este artículo analiza la dimensión ético-musical de la Antígona, de Sófocles, con el foco en la segunda oda coral, conocida como "Elogio del hombre". En la primera parte se analiza la relación entre el texto y la música, presentando un contrapunto entre la versión de Félix Mendelssohn (1841) y la de Carl Orff (1947). Se analiza así la relación entre las estéticas de cada época (dimensión particular) y la singularidad creadora del artista. En la segunda parte, se aborda el problema en términos de los registros Imaginario, simbólico y real, con referencias al tratamiento de la tragedia en el Seminario de la ética (Lacan). Finalmente, se presenta el valor de la tragedia como un recurso en la clínica.

Therapy of the word and other psychotherapeutic approaches in Ancient Greek medicine.

One of the most distinctive aspects of contemporary psychiatry is its firm grounding in a neurological and biochemical framework for the interpretation of mental life and its disturbances. In the absence of any strong neurological understanding or systematic knowledge of active pharmaceutical substances, one might expect that early ancient medicine readily resorted to non-somatic approaches to healing mental suffering. Instead, what is usually labelled "therapy of the word" and other forms of what one may call psychotherapy emerge relatively late in Greek medicine, only in the first centuries of our era. This paper provides an overview and analysis of this development in ancient history of psychology, philosophy and medicine, covering a broad period of time from the fifth century BCE to the end of the late-antique period, the fifth century CE. The focus is on the very idea (or lack thereof) of the curability of mental disturbance, and on the particular branch of therapeutics which addresses the psychological and existential condition of the patient, rather than his or her physiological state.

Thessaly and medicine from ancient Greek mythology to contemporary times: a perpetual relationship.

The aim of this narrative review is to provide an overview of the connection between Thessaly and the development of medicine from ancient Greek mythology to contemporary times. From Chiron to Asclepius, from Asclepius to Hippocrates, and from Hippocrates to the true Hippocratic epidemiologist Dimitrios Trichopoulos, a plethora of myths and facts indicate the strong and perpetual alignment between Thessaly and the science of medicine.

The Influence of Gondeshapur Medicine during the Sassanid Dynasty and the Early Islamic Period.

The development of the most active period of Persian medicine occurred in the ancient city of Gondeshapur, between the third and seventh centuries. Rebuilt between 256 and 260 by Shapur I, the second Sassanid monarch, Gondeshapur is said to have welcomed the first hospital and the consequent study of medicine, mainly based on the Greek system. It has also been mentioned that these teachings would be expanded by his successor, Shapur II. However, both statements need solid confirmation. Nestorian priests-professors and other academics expelled from the Byzantine Empire gave fundamental encouragement to cultural and medical development in Gondeshapur. With Khosrow I, Gondeshapur became a cosmopolitan city with studies of medicine, philosophy, eloquence, and music. The medical studies were conducted in an academic setting, and practiced in a hospital, with the documentary support of a library which would be provided with the main texts, mainly of Greek, Syrian, and Indian origin. The Byzantine-inspired hospital system of Gondeshapur with its own management, organic system, and differentiated personnel, was later reproduced in several cities of the Middle East and medieval Europe under Islamic rule. The academic prestige and functionality of Gondeshapur, which peaked in the seventh century, began to decline in the following centuries apparently due to the creation of similar intellectual and hospital centres in Baghdad, by the Caliph al-Mansur, and the subsequent transfer of doctors, technicians, professors and other personnel from Gondeshapur, to ensure there the operation of hospitals and also medical studies. This cultural policy was continued and expanded by al-Mansur successors, in particular by the Caliph al-Ma'mun, until the tenth century.

The Greek (Hellenic) rheumatology over the years: from ancient to modern times.

Rheumatology has its roots in ancient Greece. Hippocrates and other prominent Greek (Hellenes) physicians in ancient times, Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine period were acute observers of disease course and of patients and were able to define many disorders. They wrote books on various aspects of medicine and these writings were the basis of medical practice and education in Europe and the Arabic world well into the seventeenth century. In 1821, Greece emerged from a long occupation by the Turks. In 1930, Adamantiades, a Greek Ophthalmologist, before Behcet of Turkey, described what is known as (Adamantiades)-Behcet disease. The first scientific Hellenic Society for Rheumatology (ERE) was established in 1960 and today ERE having been merged with the Professional Union of Greek rheumatologists (EPERE) is known as ERE-EPERE. Rheumatology is a strong specialty with 348 rheumatologists for a population of around 11 million. Greek rheumatologists have contributed to rheumatology science and practice, and are active physicians participating in the American College of Rheumatology and the EULAR annual congresses and in many educational postgraduate courses. ERE-EPERE formed therapeutic protocols for inflammatory and autoimmune rheumatic diseases which were incorporated in the electronic National prescription system. Rheumatologists are authorized to use this platform to prescribe biologicals free of charge for patients. ERE-EPERE publishes a peer-reviewed English language journal, the Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology (MJR), an open access journal with no publication fees. MJR is a quarterly journal with international Editorial Board.

Neuroscience and Greek mythology.

This article highlights the major reflections of ancient Greek mythology in modern neuroscience. An analysis of ancient Greek texts and medical literature using the MeSH term mythology was performed to identify mythological references pertaining to neuroscience. The findings are discussed in relation to etymology, early conceptualization of the nervous system structure and function, incipient characterization of neuropsychiatric disease, and philosophical stance to the practice of medicine in ancient Greece. The search identified numerous observations in clinical neurology (e.g., stroke, epilepsy, cognitive and movement disorders, sleep, pain and neuromuscular medicine, neuroinfectious diseases, headache, neuroophthalmology, and neurourology), neurosurgery, and psychiatry, as well as basic neurosciences (e.g., anatomy, embryology, genetics, pathology, and pharmacology) concealed in ancient myths. Beyond mere etymological allure and imaginative reflections in science, these fables envisage philosophical concepts that still tantalize our protean medical practice today.

Pharmacies for pain and trauma in ancient Greece.

PURPOSE: To summarize pharmacies for pain and trauma in ancient Greece, to present several pharmaceutical/therapeutical methods reported in myths and ancient texts, and to theorize on the medical explanation upon which these pharmacies were used. METHOD: A thorough literature search was undertaken in PubMed and Google Scholar as well as in physical books in libraries to summarize the pharmacies and pain practices used for trauma in ancient Greece. RESULTS: Archeological findings and historical texts have revealed that humans have always suffered from diseases and trauma that were initially managed and healed by priests and magicians. In early Greek antiquity, the term pharmacy was related to herbal inquiries, with the occupants called charmers and pharmacists. Additionally, apart from therapeutic methods, ancient Greeks acknowledged the importance of pain therapy and had invented certain remedies for both acute and chronic pain management. With observations and obtaining experience, they used plants, herbs, metals and soil as a therapeutic method, regardless of the cultural level of the population. They achieved sedation and central and peripheral analgesia with opium and cold, as well as relaxation of smooth muscle fibers and limiting secretions with atropina. CONCLUSION: History showed a lot of experience obtained from empirical testing of pain treatment in ancient people. Experience and reasoning constructed an explanatory account of diseases, therapies and health and have provided for the epistemology of medicine.

Women in surgery. Myth, history, actuality.

This work synthetically documents the history of women's efforts to be professionally acknowledged as surgeon. The examined timeline goes back from ancient civilizations to our days. It highlights the difficulties that women have had in time, particularly in the last two centuries, trying to make their aspirations come true and their will in becoming surgeons. The attention goes to the difficulties that are faced in our time regarding the medical field and the academic career. Moreover, corrective organizational and behavioural advice is given to solve specific problems still actual, in order to promote sex equality and working collaboration.

Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra): the journey of the sweet root from Mesopotamia to England.

Liquorice is a very ancient plant widely used in the East for millennia. It has often been employed in sweets and confectionery and also for minor ailments including cough, constipation and dyspepsia. It was probably carried to Europe by the Cluniac order of monks. Then, almost by accident, it became established in West Yorkshire at Pontefract after the dissolution of the monasteries in the 1530s. Abuse of liquorice is not uncommon. It can occur in the anorexia/bulimia syndrome and also in the dangerous condition of pseudoaldosteronism, which is characterised by severe hypertension and hypokalaemia and can lead to death. Liquorice remains a useful sweetener for all sorts of confectionery, including sweets and cakes (together with beer and liqueurs).

A probable case of doping in an Olympic athlete coming back from ancient Greece (V cent. B.C.).

We present here the hypothesis of doping in an athlete coming back from the ancient Greece, dating back to V century B.C. There are some bone alterations due to the sports that he probably practiced, and that are represented on the amphorae (prices of his victories) found near his sepulchre. The skeleton shows a considerable mass and bone density. The chemical analyses performed on the bone emphasized the presence of arsenic, while the X-ray and CAT scan examinations revealed a quite big sella turcica. These two aspects might have influenced the performances of this athlete, and in the same time might have provoked his death at the age of about 30 years.

Historical evolution of the concept of health in Western medicine.

"Health" is a positive multi-dimensional concept involving a variety of features, ranging from ability to integrity, from fitness to well-being. According to the first principle of the constitution of the World Health Organization "Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". This constitution was adopted by the International Health Conference held in New York in June-July 1946 and became operative in April 1948. This classical, seventy-year old definition of the World Health Organization is nowadays considered a historical one and it stands as a fundamental milestone of a diachronic track beginning, in Western medicine, with the definition of health proposed by Hippocrates and his School. For Hippocrates health was the state of equilibrium of four humours. This philosophical-naturalistic definition has been flanked in the history of Western medicine by various concepts of health and disease, alternatively based, according to different scientists and in different medical contexts and periods, on epidemiological, anatomical, physiological, functional, social and molecular perspectives. Since biomedical definitions are always prone to integration and updating, depending on the continuous achievements of medical science and bioethics, the fascinating journey through the concepts of health and disease, the fundamental milestones of which are here briefly proposed, is still in progress.