The Many Colors of Excrement: Galen and the History of Chinese Phlegm.

Phlegm figures as a major cause and consequence of disease in late imperial Chinese medicine. Curiously, however, when we go back to the classics, the very notion of phlegm is entirely absent. The rise of phlegm is one of the fundamental transformations in the history of Chinese medicine. This article suggests that the little-known Yuan dynasty treatise On the Art of Nourishing Life (1338), which is notable for extending Chinese phlegm theory in unprecedented ways, was pivotal for this transformation. Noting a strong resemblance of the innovations of this treatise with Galenic medical theories, this article argues that they were inspired by an encounter with the Galenic medical tradition. It submits that these novel ideas radically altered preexisting Chinese understandings of the body's materiality and the nature of disease, and calls for closer attention to the transcultural movements of theories and concepts in the historiography of Chinese and global medicine.

The politics of environments before the environment: Biopolitics in the longue durée.

Our understanding of body-world relations is caught in a curious contradiction. On one side, it is well established that many concepts that describe interaction with the outer world - 'plasticity' or 'metabolism'- or external influences on the body - 'environment' or 'milieu' - appeared with rise of modern science. On the other side, although premodern science lacked a unifying term for it, an anxious attentiveness to the power of 'environmental factors' in shaping physical and moral traits held sway in nearly all medical systems before and alongside modern Europe. In this article, I build on a new historiography on the policing of bodies and environments in medieval times and at the urban scale to problematize Foucault's claim about biopolitics as a modern phenomenon born in the European eighteenth-century. I look in particular at the collective usage of ancient medicine and manipulation of the milieu based on humoralist notions of corporeal permeability (Hippocrates, Galen, Ibn Sina) in the Islamicate and Latin Christendom between the 12th and the 15th century. This longer history has implications also for a richer genealogy of contemporary tropes of plasticity, permeability and environmental determinism beyond usual genealogies that take as a starting point the making of the modern body and EuroAmerican biomedicine.

[Equine-assisted therapy, health and sports: figurations of the practice in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, 1970-2000]. / Equoterapia, saúde e esporte: figurações da prática no Rio Grande do Sul, 1970-2000.

Based on the theoretical assumptions of Norbert Elias, we sought to understand the figurations of equine-assisted therapy in Rio Grande do Sul from 1970 to 2000. To this end, the research corpus consisted of official documents, newspapers and magazines. Based on the concept of figuration, the documentation analyzed demonstrated technical-scientific elements linked to the fields of healthcare, education and horseback riding, coming from equestrianism and shared in the practice of equine-assisted therapy. The interrelations established between these different areas allowed the practice to take on attributes and representations emanating from the equestrian world. Thus, other figurations were developed in the field of equine-assisted therapy involving relationships between military and civil entities.

Com base nos pressupostos teóricos de Norbert Elias, objetivou-se compreender as figurações da equoterapia no Rio Grande do Sul no período demarcado entre 1970 e 2000. Para tanto, o corpus documental da pesquisa foi composto por documentos oficiais, jornais e revistas. A partir do conceito de figuração, a documentação analisada evidenciou elementos técnico-científicos, acoplados às áreas da saúde, educação e equitação, provenientes do hipismo e compartilhados na prática da equoterapia. As inter-relações estabelecidas entre essas áreas possibilitaram que tal prática congregasse atributos e representações emanadas do cenário hípico. Assim, constituíram-se outras figurações no campo da equoterapia, envolvendo relações entre entidades que congregavam militares e civis.

A Critical Essay on the Historiography of East Asian Medicines: New Horizons beyond Dichotomy and "Tradition".

One of the main topics discussed by historians, including those of science, in the late twentieth century is the historical introspection into "modernism," a term based on a teleological view of the world. According to the conventional understanding of world history, the historical process to modernity that has led to the Civil Revolution, Scientific Revolution, and Capitalism is linear and universally inevitable, and this-in other words, Eurocentrism-implies that only the historical experiences of Europeans are relevant. This mainstream view of world history has spread the dichotomous analytic framework of historiography and reinforced cultural essentialism, which has eventually given a Euro- or Sino-centric hierarchical presentation of history. This type of world view rests on the assumption that there are intrinsic and incommensurable differences between cultures or localities, which a lot of commentators and scholars have constantly countered by arguing that that presumption does not comply with what historical sources say. Drawing on some trail-blazing scholarship of cultural studies and others, this essay turns away from this "conventional" framework of historiography and presents a world view that is framed in the context of trans-locality, interconnectedness, plurality, heterogeneity, polycentricity, and diversity. In recent years, in an attempt to search for new analytic frames, some endeavors have emerged in the field of cultural or science studies to go beyond just providing critical commentaries or case studies. Furthermore, researchers and scholars in the history of science, technology and medicine in East Asia have put an effort into conceptualizing and establishing such new analytic frames. Among those approaches are attempts to shed light upon the trans-local yet global interconnectedness (emphatically in pre-modern periods), diverse historical trajectories to modernities, and polycentric as well as plural landscape of scientific enterprises over time and across the world. On top of these new visions of world history, this essay further elaborates on and proposes some conceptive ideas: (1) "Tradition" as a set of recipes, which could replace the idea of the living yet dead tradition; (2) "Medicine" as a problem-solving activity, which calls more attention to historical actors of East Asian medicine; (3) "East Asian medicines" as a family of trans-locally related practices in East Asia, which would lead to going beyond the nationalist historiography such as Sino-centrism; (4) "Problematique" as the system of questions and concepts which make up East Asian medicine, which should reveal what East Asian medicines have been about; (5) "Styles of Practice" for the historiography of East Asian medicines, as opposed to the cultural account, epistemological historiography or praxiography; and, as an illustrative example, (6) "Topological Bodies" for the history of anatomy in East Asia. Going beyond tradition and dichotomous historiography, these new methodologies or conceptual ideas will contribute to the understanding of the history of East Asian medicines.

Equoterapia, saúde e esporte: figurações da prática no Rio Grande do Sul, 1970-2000 / Equine-assisted therapy, health and sports: figurations of the practice in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, 1970-2000

Resumo Com base nos pressupostos teóricos de Norbert Elias, objetivou-se compreender as figurações da equoterapia no Rio Grande do Sul no período demarcado entre 1970 e 2000. Para tanto, o corpus documental da pesquisa foi composto por documentos oficiais, jornais e revistas. A partir do conceito de figuração, a documentação analisada evidenciou elementos técnico-científicos, acoplados às áreas da saúde, educação e equitação, provenientes do hipismo e compartilhados na prática da equoterapia. As inter-relações estabelecidas entre essas áreas possibilitaram que tal prática congregasse atributos e representações emanadas do cenário hípico. Assim, constituíram-se outras figurações no campo da equoterapia, envolvendo relações entre entidades que congregavam militares e civis.

Abstract Based on the theoretical assumptions of Norbert Elias, we sought to understand the figurations of equine-assisted therapy in Rio Grande do Sul from 1970 to 2000. To this end, the research corpus consisted of official documents, newspapers and magazines. Based on the concept of figuration, the documentation analyzed demonstrated technical-scientific elements linked to the fields of healthcare, education and horseback riding, coming from equestrianism and shared in the practice of equine-assisted therapy. The interrelations established between these different areas allowed the practice to take on attributes and representations emanating from the equestrian world. Thus, other figurations were developed in the field of equine-assisted therapy involving relationships between military and civil entities.

Photograph as Skin, Skin as Wax: Indexicality and the Visualisation of Syphilis in Fin-de-Siècle France The William Bynum Prize Essay.

In early twentieth-century France, syphilis and its controversial status as a hereditary disease reigned as a chief concern for physicians and public health officials. As syphilis primarily presented visually on the surface of the skin, its study fell within the realms of both dermatologists and venereologists, who relied heavily on visual evidence in their detection, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease. Thus, in educational textbooks, atlases, and medical models, accurately reproducing the visible signposts of syphilis - the colour, texture, and patterns of primary chancres or secondary rashes - was of preeminent importance. Photography, with its potential claims to mechanical objectivity, would seem to provide the logical tool for such representations. Yet photography's relationship to syphilographie warrants further unpacking. Despite the rise of a desire for mechanical objectivity charted in the late nineteenth century, artist-produced, three-dimensional, wax-cast moulages coexisted with photographs as significant educational tools for dermatologists; at times, these models were further mediated through photographic reproduction in texts. Additionally, the rise of phototherapy complicated this relationship by fostering the clinical equation of the light-sensitive photographic plate with the patient's skin, which became the photographic record of disease and successful treatment. This paper explores these complexities to delineate a more nuanced understanding of objectivity vis-à-vis photography and syphilis. Rather than a desire to produce an unbiased image, fin-de-siècle dermatologists marshalled the photographic to exploit the verbal and visual rhetoric of objectivity, authority, and persuasion inextricably linked to culturally constructed understandings of the photograph. This rhetoric was often couched in the Peircean concept of indexicality, which physicians formulated through the language of witness, testimony, and direct connection.

What Historians of Medicine Can Learn from Historians of Capitalism.

After briefly surveying the New History of Capitalism and its objectives, this article explores ways that the history of medicine and the history of capitalism can productively interact. The article argues that historians of medicine should adopt a broad definition of "capitalism" to accommodate the distinctive nature of medical and health care markets. Across millennia and diverse cultures, medical markets have demonstrated extensive commodification, with spiritual or religious goods and services composing a significant portion of commercial trade. Moreover, health care markets, at least since the ancient era, have been susceptible to third-party interventions by both the state and voluntary organizations. Accordingly, historians of medicine should look for pockets of capitalist exchange in otherwise noncapitalist economies and also assess how the logic of capitalism has influenced government programming and other types of third-party involvement in the health care market. To illustrate that insights from the history of capitalism can be applied to many topics within the history of medicine, this article presents three case studies. It examines medical markets in ancient Egypt; in Medieval Europe as managed by the Catholic Church; and in Germany, England, and the United States at the end of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth.

'Insanity in Classical Antiquity', by JL Heiberg (1913).

Heiberg's 1913 text on psychopathological concepts and terms in classical times remains important because of its freshness and historiographical value. A philologist and classical scholar, he seemed puzzled by the assumption of nosological continuity between classical categories of madness and current ones that prevailed at the time among historians of medicine and psychiatry. Heiberg's text acts as a bridge or transition between the nosological antiquarianism of the 19th century and histories of psychiatry that later warned of the dangers of an anachronistic reading of earlier medical texts. It also shows how important has been the contribution of classical philologists to the study of the history of madness. To our knowledge, this is the first rendition into English of the complete Danish work.

Promoting free flow in the networks: Reimagining the body in early modern Suzhou.

The history of Chinese medicine is still widely imagined in terms dictated by the discourse of modernity, that is as 'traditional' and 'Chinese.' And yet, so as to be intelligible to us moderns, it must simultaneously be framed through categories that make it comparable somehow to the 'West' and the 'modern' from which it is said to be essentially different. This is accomplished, for instance, by viewing Chinese medicine as fundamentally shaped by cosmological thinking, as focusing on process rather than matter, and as forever hampered by attachments to the past even when it tries to innovate. At the same time, it is described as pursuing its objectives in ways that make sense in 'our' terms, too, such as the goal of creating physiological homeostasis through methods of supplementation and drainage. In this paper, I seek to move beyond this kind of analysis through a two-pronged approach. First, by focusing on the concept of tong - a character that calls forth images of free flow, connectivity, relatedness and understanding - I foreground an important aspect of Chinese medical thinking and practice that has virtually been ignored by Western historians of medicine and science. Second, by exploring how the influential physician Ye Tianshi (1664-1746) employed tong to advance medical thinking and practice at a crucial moment of change in the history of Chinese medicine, I demonstrate that physicians in early modern China moved towards new understandings of the body readily intelligible by modern biomedical anatomy. I argue that this mode of analysis allows us to transcend the limitations inherent in the current historiography of Chinese medicine: because it allows for comparison to emerge from our subject matter rather than imposing our imaginaries onto it in advance.

Medical Machines as Symbols of Science?: Promoting Electrotherapy in Victorian Canada.

This article tackles a common assumption in the historiography of medical technology, that new medical instruments in the nineteenth century were universally seen as symbols of the scientific nature of medical practice. The article examines the strategies used by Jenny Trout, the first woman in Canada licensed to practice medicine, and J. Adams, a homeopathic physician, to advertise electrotherapy to the residents of Toronto in the 1870s and 1880s. While electrotherapy involved complex electrical technology, the doctors in this study did not draw attention to their instruments as proof of the legitimacy of their practice. In fact the technology is almost entirely absent from their promotional texts. While both doctors wanted their practice to be associated with scientific medicine, neither saw their instruments as immediately or obviously symbolic of science.

Turhan Baytop (1920-2002): A pioneer historian of pharmacy from Turkey.

Turhan Baytop, a Turkish professor of pharmacognosy (the scientific study of crude drugs of animal, vegetable, and mineral origin), received international acclaim not only for his contributions in collecting and identifying the Anatolian plants, but also for his extensive research shedding light on the history of Turkish pharmacy. As a devoted researcher, collector, and lecturer, T Baytop was a genuine pioneer of the history of pharmacy as a discipline in Turkey.

Psychological keys in the study of African American religious folk songs in the early work of Howard W. Odum (1884-1954).

This study focuses on the analysis of the early work of Howard W. Odum (1884-1954) and the examination of the psychological aspects that marked his reflection on African American music. This analysis reveals many of the aspects that were generically shared by the psychological agenda of the period when analyzing aesthetic experience and activity. Outstanding among these are the relationship of the musical phenomenon with very basic or primary affective-emotional dimensions, the conception of the musical phenomenon as an indicator of the cognitive-affective development of human groups, its expression in the form of cultural and complex intersubjective products, or its possible participation in the technoscientific design of social reform and progress. The simultaneous treatment of all of these aspects in Odum's work brings to light the interdisciplinary framework in which early psychology moved, while revealing the theoretical and ideological contradictions and controversies that enveloped the discipline, above all, at the point where it attempted to place itself at the service of the constitution of self-governed individuals. All in all, Odum's work also reflects the crucial role that early psychology attributed to art as a privileged medium to give meaning to experience and the human being's vital purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record

A representação de educação linguística de imigrantes no Brasil / The Representation of Linguistic Education of Immigrants In Brazil

O presente artigo teve como objetivo explicar a representação de educação linguística de imigrantes no Brasil. A base teórica do estudo é a Historiografia Linguística (HL), cujas pesquisas visam à reconstrução do conhecimento sobre as línguas e linguagem humana em diferentes recortes temporais. Do tipo documental, o estudo tem como corpus as narrativas jornalísticas veiculadas durante o período de 1900 a 2015 na imprensa catarinense. Os jornais escolhidos como fontes para a obtenção dos dados foram: O Estado e Diário Catarinense. Adotou-se, para o tratamento dos dados, a técnica de análise de conteúdo. Os resultados foram analisados em três seções distintas. A primeira seção referiu-se ao período da Primeira Campanha de Nacionalização, na qual se discutiu a representação de educação linguística: escolas nacionalizadoras para assimilação do imigrante. A segunda referiu-se ao período da Segunda Campanha de Nacionalização, tendo como categorias: as práticas monoculturais e monolíngues nas escolas nacionalizadoras. A terceira intitulou-se a redemocratização, com as categorias: bilinguismo na escola e bilinguismo fora da escola. Os resultados indicam a superação de um passado em que se silenciava, por meio de medidas coercitivas, para dar lugar a um contexto em que se presenciam certa tolerância e proteção da diversidade linguístico-cultural existente no país.

This article explains the representation of linguistic education of immigrants in Brazil. The theoretical framework of the study is based on Linguistic Historiography (LH), which addresses the reconstruction of knowledge about languages and human language in different periods of time. This is a documentary type study, with a corpus consisting of journalistic narratives published between 1900 to 2015 in the Santa Catarina press. The newspapers chosen as sources for the document corpus were: O Estado and Diário Catarinense. For the data processing, the technique of content analysis. The results were analyzed in three distinct sections. The first section focuses on the First Nationalization Campaign period, in which we discuss the representation of inguistic education: nationalizing schools for the assimilation of immigrants. The second section focuses on the Second Nationalization Campaign. The categories discussed in this section are the representation of linguistic education; and monocultural and monolingual practices in nationalizing schools. The third section refers to the period from redemocratization. The categories addressed in this section are representation of linguistic education: bilingualism in school and out of school. The results indicate the legislative policies of recent years have overcome a past that was silenced through coercive policies, replacing it with a context marked by a certain tolerance and protection of the linguistic and cultural diversity that exist in the country.

La socialización de los practicantes a través de los manuales del Dr. Felipe Sáenz de Cenzano 1907-1942 / Socialization of 'Practicantes' through the Manuals of the Dr. Felipe Sáenz de Cenzano 1907-1942

Desde la creación en España del título de practicante en 1857, su enseñanza fue regulada por varios planes de estudio hasta la unificación en 1953 de las tres titulaciones auxiliares de la medicina (practicante, matrona y enfermera), en la de Ayudante Técnico Sanitario (ATS). Este trabajo analiza la socialización de los practicantes a través de las distintas ediciones de El Manual del Practicante (1907, 1922, 1934 y 1942), elaborado por el médico encargado de su enseñanza oficial en Zaragoza, Felipe Sáenz de Cenzano. Tras el análisis de su estructura y su contenido, en especial los fundamentos de su saber y las competencias técnicas o de cuidados al enfermo, resaltamos las diferencias que se observan en los manuales y las legalmente establecidas, que fueron siempre más restrictivas. En conjunto se perfila la configuración de dos escenarios laborales distintos para el practicante, la ciudad y la zona rural, que proyectaron dos imágenes profesionales distintas

Since the creation of the qualification of Spanish practitioner 'practicante' in 1857 in Spain, its teaching was regulated by several curriculums until the unification in 1953 of the three auxiliary degrees in medicine ("practicante", midwife and nurse), in the technical health assistant (ATS). This paper analyzes the socialization of "practicantes" through the various editions of "El Manual del Practicante" (1907, 1922, 1934 and 1942), prepared by the physician in charge of their formal education in Zaragoza, Felipe Sáenz de Cenzano. After analyzing its structure and content, especially the basis of their knowledge and technical skills or nursing care, we highlight the differences observed in the manuals and the legally established, which were always more restrictive. In summary, it be outlined the configuration of two different work settings, the city and the rural area, that projected two different professional images

William Wilde: Historian.

This essay attempts to assess William Wilde as a social historian. It examines some of his contributions to the discipline of history and looks particularly at 'The food of the Irish', which was published in the Dublin University Magazine in February 1854.

Animal Magnetism, Psychiatry and Subjective Experience in Nineteenth-Century Germany: Friedrich Krauß and his Nothschrei.

Friedrich Krauß (1791-1868) is the author of Nothschrei eines Magnetisch-Vergifteten [Cry of Distress by a Victim of Magnetic Poisoning] (1852), which has been considered one of the most comprehensive self-narratives of madness published in the German language. In this 1018-page work Krauß documents his acute fears of 'mesmerist' influence and persecution, his detainment in an Antwerp asylum and his encounter with various illustrious physicians across Europe. Though in many ways comparable to other prominent nineteenth-century first-person accounts (eg. John Thomas Perceval's 1838 Narrative of the Treatment Experienced by a Gentleman or Daniel Paul Schreber's 1903 Memoirs of my Nervous Illness), Krauß's story has received comparatively little scholarly attention. This is especially the case in the English-speaking world. In this article I reconstruct Krauß's biography by emphasising his relationship with physicians and his under-explored stay at the asylum. I then investigate the ways in which Krauß appropriated nascent theories about 'animal magnetism' to cope with his disturbing experiences. Finally, I address Krauß's recently discovered calligraphic oeuvre, which bears traces of his typical fears all the while showcasing his artistic skills. By moving away from the predominantly clinical perspective that has characterised earlier studies, this article reveals how Friedrich Krauß sought to make sense of his experience by selectively appropriating both orthodox and non-orthodox forms of medical knowledge. In so doing, it highlights the mutual interaction of discourses 'from above' and 'from below' as well as the influence of broader cultural forces on conceptions of self and illness during that seminal period.

Richard's back: death, scoliosis and myth making.

The body of a mediaeval monarch was always under scrutiny, and Richard III's was no exception. In death, however, his body became subject to new forms of examination and interpretation: stripped naked after the battle of Bosworth, his corpse was carried to Leicester and exhibited before being buried. In 2012, it was rediscovered. The revelation that Richard suffered from scoliosis prompts this article to re-evaluate the historical sources about Richard's physique and his posthumous reputation. This article argues that Richard's death and his myth as 'crookback' are inextricably linked and traces attitudes to spinal curvature in the early modern period. It also considers how Shakespeare represented Richard as deformed, and aspects of performance history which suggest physical vulnerability. It then considers Richard's scoliosis from the perspective of medical history, reviewing classical accounts of scoliosis and arguing that Richard was probably treated with a mixture of axial traction and pressure. It demonstrates from the evidence of Richard's medical household that he was well placed to receive hands-on therapies and considers in particular the role of his physician and surgeon, William Hobbes. Finally, it shows how the case of Richard III demonstrates the close relationship between politics and medicine in the period and the contorted process of historical myth making.

Los prodigios del hombre encarnado. Víctor Melcior y la redefinición de la mediumnidad (1901) / The marvels of the incarnated man. Víctor Melcior and the redefinition of mediumship (1901)

A finales del siglo XIX, mediante el estudio científico de los fenómenos espiritistas, nuevos enfoques médicos y psicológicos se aplicaron a la mediumnidad. La idea del médium espiritista fue sustituida por la noción del médium como un ser desequilibrado, capaz de emanar fuerzas psíquicas inconscientemente. Este trabajo analiza la redefinición de la mediumnidad a través de unos polémicos artículos del médico catalán Víctor Melcior. Esta microhistoria sirve, por un lado, para situar el debate local dentro del contexto científico internacional y, así, mostrar las relaciones entre el espiritismo, la medicina y la psicopatología del momento. Por otro lado, permite analizar las reacciones de algunos espiritistas a las teorías de Melcior, así como las consecuencias que este debate tuvo para el espiritismo en general (AU)

Towards the end of the 19th century, new medico-psychological approaches were applied to mediumship through the scientific study of spiritualist phenomena. The spiritualist idea of the medium was replaced with the notion of the medium as an unstable human being capable of emanating psychic forces unconsciously. This paper analyses the redefinition of mediumship through the polemical articles of the Catalan physician Víctor Melcior. On one hand, this microhistory allows the local debate to be placed within the scientific international context, describing the relationships among spiritualism, medicine and psychopathology at that time. On the other hand, it permits analysis of the reactions of some spiritualists to Melciors (AU)