The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in the Brazilian political agenda, 2003-2005. / A Convenção-Quadro para o Controle do Tabaco da Organização mundial da Saúde na agenda política brasileira, 2003-2005.

This study analyses the development of a tobacco-control agenda in Brazil following the country's participation in the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC). This process started with the diplomatic negotiations for the participation of Brazil in the treaty, in 2003, and its ratification by the National Congress, in 2005, and was marked by substantial controversies between public health players, who are accountable for tobacco-control actions, and the high echelon of Brazilian diplomacy, emissaries of the tobacco industry, representatives of small tobacco farmers from the Southern region of the country, congress representatives, senators and ministers. The study is based on the contributions of John W. Kingdon on the development of an agenda for the formulation of public policies. It took into account secondary references, legislative and institutional sources from the 1995 to 2005 period. It concluded that the association of tobacco-related healthcare actions by technically skilled officials, the involvement of the high echelon of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (policy flow), the initiative for the establishment of the WHO-FCTC (problem flow), and the existence of a favorable environment in both, executive and legislative (political flow), opened a window of opportunity for WHO-FCTC ratification and its inclusion in the government decision agenda.

The decision-making process in Brazil's ratification of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. / O processo decisório de ratificação da Convenção-Quadro para o Controle do Tabaco da Organização Mundial da Saúde no Brasil.

Tobacco consumption is a leading cause of various types of cancer and other tobacco-related diseases. In 2003, the World Health Assembly adopted the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC), which aims to protect citizens from the health, social, environmental, and economic consequences of tobacco consumption and exposure to tobacco smoke. The Convention was to be ratified by the Member States of the WHO; in Brazil's case, ratification involved the National Congress, which held public hearings in the country's leading tobacco growing communities (municipalities). The current study analyzes this decision-making process according to the different interests, positions, and stakeholders. In methodological terms, this is a qualitative study based on document research, drawing primarily on the shorthand notes from the public hearings. We analyze the interests and arguments for and against ratification. The article shows that although preceded by intense debates, the final decision in favor of ratification was made by a limited group of government stakeholders, characterizing a decision-making process similar to a funnel.

O processo decisório de ratificação da Convenção-Quadro para o Controle do Tabaco da Organização Mundial da Saúde no Brasil / El proceso decisorio de ratificación del Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la Organización Mundial de la Salud en Brasil / The decision-making process in Brazil's ratification of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control

Resumo: O consumo de tabaco é um dos principais responsáveis por diferentes tipos de câncer e outras enfermidades relacionadas a esse uso. Em 2003, a Assembleia Mundial de Saúde adotou a Convenção-Quadro para o Controle do Tabaco da Organização Mundial da Saúde (CQCT-OMS), a qual visa a proteger os cidadãos das consequências sanitárias, sociais, ambientais e econômicas geradas pelo consumo e pela exposição à fumaça do tabaco. A Convenção deveria ser ratificada pelos países membros da OMS e, no caso brasileiro, sua ratificação envolveu o Congresso Nacional, que realizou audiências públicas nas principais cidades produtoras da erva. Neste trabalho, analisa-se esse processo decisório à luz dos diferentes interesses, posições e atores sociais envolvidos. Em termos metodológicos, trata-se de um estudo qualitativo fundamentado em pesquisa documental baseada, sobretudo, nas notas taquigráficas das audiências públicas. São analisados os interesses e os argumentos apresentados favoráveis e contrários à ratificação. O artigo demonstra que, apesar de precedida por intensos debates, a decisão final favorável à ratificação foi tomada por um grupo restrito de agentes públicos, caracterizando um processo decisório que se assemelha a um funil.

Resumen: El consumo de tabaco es uno de los principales responsables de los diferentes tipos de cáncer y otras enfermedades relacionadas con su consumo. En 2003, la Asamblea Mundial de la Salud adoptó el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (CQCT-OMS), que tiene como objetivo proteger a los ciudadanos de las consecuencias sanitarias, sociales, ambientales y económicas generadas por el consumo y por la exposición al humo del tabaco. El convenio debería ser ratificado por los países miembros de la OMS y, en el caso brasileño, su ratificación involucró al Congreso Nacional, que realizó audiencias públicas en las principales ciudades productoras de esta planta. En este trabajo, se analiza ese proceso decisorio a la luz de los diferentes intereses, posiciones y actores sociales involucrados. En términos metodológicos, se trata de un estudio cualitativo, fundamentado en una investigación documental basada, sobre todo, en las notas taquigráficas de las audiencias públicas. Se analizan los intereses y los argumentos presentados favorables y contrarios a la ratificación. El artículo demuestra que, a pesar de estar precedida por intensos debates, la decisión final favorable a la ratificación se tomó por parte de un grupo restringido de agentes públicos, caracterizando un proceso decisorio semejante por su dinámica al de un embudo.

Abstract: Tobacco consumption is a leading cause of various types of cancer and other tobacco-related diseases. In 2003, the World Health Assembly adopted the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC), which aims to protect citizens from the health, social, environmental, and economic consequences of tobacco consumption and exposure to tobacco smoke. The Convention was to be ratified by the Member States of the WHO; in Brazil's case, ratification involved the National Congress, which held public hearings in the country's leading tobacco growing communities (municipalities). The current study analyzes this decision-making process according to the different interests, positions, and stakeholders. In methodological terms, this is a qualitative study based on document research, drawing primarily on the shorthand notes from the public hearings. We analyze the interests and arguments for and against ratification. The article shows that although preceded by intense debates, the final decision in favor of ratification was made by a limited group of government stakeholders, characterizing a decision-making process similar to a funnel.

A Convenção-Quadro para o Controle do Tabaco da Organização mundial da Saúde na agenda política brasileira, 2003-2005 / El Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco en la Organización Mundial de la Salud em la agenda política brasileña, 2003-2005 / The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in the Brazilian political agenda, 2003-2005

Resumo: Este estudo analisa a criação de uma agenda política de controle do tabaco no Brasil a partir da participação do país na Convenção-Quadro para o Controle do Tabaco da Organização Mundial da Saúde (CQCT-OMS). Tal processo se estendeu entre as negociações diplomáticas para a participação do Brasil nesse Tratado, em 2003, e a sua ratificação pelo Congresso Nacional, em 2005, e foi marcado por longas controvérsias que colocaram frente a frente atores da saúde pública, que são os responsáveis pelas atividades de controle do tabaco, o alto escalão da diplomacia brasileira, os emissários da indústria tabaqueira, os representantes dos pequenos plantadores de fumo da Região Sul do país, deputados, senadores e ministros. O estudo toma como base as contribuições de John W. Kingdon sobre o processo de configuração de agenda no âmbito da formulação de políticas públicas. Sua construção baseou-se em bibliografia secundária, fontes legislativas e institucionais no período de 1995 a 2005. Conclui-se que a convergência da capacidade técnica da burocracia da saúde e suas ações para o controle do tabaco, o envolvimento do alto escalão do Ministério das Relações Exteriores (fluxo de políticas), a iniciativa de criação do CQCT_oms (fluxo de problemas) e a existência de um ambiente favorável, tanto no Executivo quanto no Legislativo (fluxo político), possibilitaram a abertura de uma janela de oportunidade para a ratificação da CQCT-OMS e sua ascensão à agenda de decisão governamental.

Resumen: Este estudio analiza la creación de una agenda política de control al tabaco en Brasil, a partir de la participación del país en el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la Organizaciòn Mundial de la Salud (CQCT-OMS por sus siglas en portugués). Tal proceso se extendió entre las negociaciones diplomáticas para la participación de Brasil en ese tratado, en 2003, y su ratificación por el Congreso Nacional, en 2005, que estuvo marcado por largas controversias que pusieron frente a frente a actores de la salud pública, quienes son responsables de las actividades de control al tabaco; el alto escalón de la diplomacia brasileña, los emisarios de la industria tabaquera, los representantes de los pequeños agricultores del tabaco de la región sur del país, diputados, senadores y ministros. El estudio toma como base las contribuciones de John W. Kingdon sobre el proceso de configuración de agenda en el ámbito de la formulación de políticas públicas. Su construcción se basó en bibliografía secundaria, fuentes legislativas e institucionales durante el período de 1995 a 2005. Se concluyó que la convergencia de la capacidad técnica de la burocracia de la salud y sus acciones para el control el tabaco, la participación del alto escalafón del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores (flujo de políticas), la iniciativa de creación del CQCT-OMS (flujo de problemas) y la existencia de un ambiente favorable, tanto en el Ejecutivo como en el Legislativo (flujo político), posibilitaron la apertura de una ventana de oportunidad para la ratificación del CQCT-OMS y su ascensión a la agenda de decisión gubernamental.

Abstract: This study analyses the development of a tobacco-control agenda in Brazil following the country's participation in the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC). This process started with the diplomatic negotiations for the participation of Brazil in the treaty, in 2003, and its ratification by the National Congress, in 2005, and was marked by substantial controversies between public health players, who are accountable for tobacco-control actions, and the high echelon of Brazilian diplomacy, emissaries of the tobacco industry, representatives of small tobacco farmers from the Southern region of the country, congress representatives, senators and ministers. The study is based on the contributions of John W. Kingdon on the development of an agenda for the formulation of public policies. It took into account secondary references, legislative and institutional sources from the 1995 to 2005 period. It concluded that the association of tobacco-related healthcare actions by technically skilled officials, the involvement of the high echelon of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (policy flow), the initiative for the establishment of the WHO-FCTC (problem flow), and the existence of a favorable environment in both, executive and legislative (political flow), opened a window of opportunity for WHO-FCTC ratification and its inclusion in the government decision agenda.

Tobacco control in the Russian Federation--a policy analysis.

BACKGROUND: The Russian Federation (Russia) has one of the highest smoking rates in the world. The purpose of this study is to analyze past and current trends of the tobacco epidemic in the Russian Federation, review current tobacco control policy responses, and identify areas of opportunity for policy priorities. METHODS: We used a policy triangle as analytical framework to examine content, context, and processes of Russian tobacco control policy. The analysis was based on secondary data on supply and demand sides of the Russian tobacco epidemic, tobacco-related economic and health effects during Russia's economic transition, and compliance of Russian tobacco policy with international standards and regulations. RESULTS: Tobacco-promoting strategies have specifically targeted women and youth. Russia's approval of a "National Tobacco Control Concept" and draft for a comprehensive tobacco control bill increasingly align national legislature with the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC). However, several structural and cultural factors represent substantial barriers to the policy process. The influence of transnational tobacco companies on policy processes in Russia has so far impeded a full implementation of the FCTC mandates. CONCLUSIONS: Several strategies have been identified as having the potential to reduce the prevalence of tobacco use in Russia and decrease tobacco-related national health and economic burden: adjusting national tobacco policy by raising tobacco tax from the current lowest level in Europe to at least 70%; consequent enforcement of a complete smoking ban in public places; marketing restrictions; and smoking cessation interventions integrated into primary care. Russia's tobacco control efforts need to target women and youths specifically to efficiently counter industry efforts.

Sexual imagery in cigarette advertising before and after the master settlement agreement.

This study examines how the sexual imagery in cigarette magazine advertisements changed as a result of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA). After conducting a content analysis of 657 unduplicated cigarette ads from 1994 to 2003, our results revealed that cigarette advertisements featuring suggestive/partially clad female models increased significantly from the pre-MSA period (16.0%) to the post-MSA period (24.9%). In addition, we provide empirical evidence that there was an overall increase in sexually explicit cigarette advertising after the MSA. Several implications for policymakers are discussed in detail.

Opium, tobacco and alcohol: the evolving legitimacy of international action.

There is a broad consensus that international trade in goods is beneficial, providing of course that it is fair. Yet not all things that are traded are goods. Some can more appropriately be considered as 'bads'. The way things are viewed can change over time. Over a century ago the U.K. fought a war with China for the right to trade in narcotics yet now interdicts such shipments on the high seas. More recently, the international community has agreed the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, showing that tobacco is moving from a good to a bad. However, there are other things that are legitimately traded where restrictions may be needed, such as alcohol. Global trade is simply a means to an end. The ultimate goal must include better health for all.

The impact of European Union law on public health.

The previous articles on the European Union and health law have looked at the effect of EU law on the practitioner and on the patient. This article considers the impact on public health. This is a broad concept, and the impact of EU law is equally broadly felt. There is a general recognition of the importance of health issues, reflected in Article 152 (1) EC, A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Community policies and activities. This article focuses particularly on the impact of Article 152 on public health within individual member states.

Taking ad-Vantage of lax advertising regulation in the USA and Canada: reassuring and distracting health-concerned smokers.

We explored the evolution from cigarette product attributes to psychosocial needs in advertising campaigns for low-tar cigarettes. Analysis of previously secret tobacco industry documents and print advertising images indicated that low-tar brands targeted smokers who were concerned about their health with advertising images intended to distract them from the health hazards of smoking. Advertising first emphasized product characteristics (filtration, low tar) that implied health benefits. Over time, advertising emphasis shifted to salient psychosocial needs of the target markets. A case study of Vantage cigarettes in the USA and Canada showed that advertising presented images of intelligent, upward-striving people who had achieved personal success and intentionally excluded the act of smoking from the imagery, while minimal product information was provided. This illustrates one strategy to appeal to concerned smokers by not describing the product itself (which may remind smokers of the problems associated with smoking), but instead using evocative imagery to distract smokers from these problems. Current advertising for potential reduced-exposure products (PREPs) emphasizes product characteristics, but these products have not delivered on the promise of a healthier alternative cigarette. Our results suggest that the tobacco control community should be on the alert for a shift in advertising focus for PREPs to the image of the user rather than the cigarette. Global Framework Convention on Tobacco Control-style advertising bans that prohibit all user imagery in tobacco advertising could preempt a psychosocial needs-based advertising strategy for PREPs and maintain public attention on the health hazards of smoking.

Courtesy and the challenges of implementing smoke-free policies in Japan.

For decades, the tobacco companies have developed a worldwide campaign to oppose the creation of smoke-free environments. Public health efforts to promote clean indoor air have been uneven throughout the world, and in few places have such efforts faced as many challenges as in Japan. The Japanese market is dominated by Japan Tobacco, which is partly owned by the government, and Philip Morris International is also present in Japan. Japan Tobacco and Philip Morris International have developed campaigns promoting courtesy and tolerance that, until recently, seem to have resonated well with the public. The companies also have supported research promoting ventilation and have funded consultants to act as experts in the area of second-hand smoke exposure. Japan is a critical country to study, partly because of the strength of Japan Tobacco in the country and the growth of Japan Tobacco International in Southeast Asia and the rest of the world, and partly because of Japan's ratification of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. This paper uses tobacco industry documents to provide an overview of the tobacco industry's scientific and political efforts to stifle the development of clean indoor measures in Japan. Learning past industry strategies may assist policymakers and advocates in the development of future public health activities.

Permissive nicotine regulation as a complement to traditional tobacco control.

BACKGROUND: Cigarette smoking takes a staggering toll on human health and attracts considerable public health attention, yet real solutions seem distant. The 2004 Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (US Senate bill S2461) would have given the US Food and Drug Administration limited authority to regulate cigarettes to "protect the public health." However, such legislation is unlikely to substantially reduce smoking or related deaths. DISCUSSION: The past 500 years of tobacco control efforts demonstrate that nicotine prohibition is a practical impossibility for numerous reasons, state revenue being one of the most ominous. The FDA already has regulatory authority over pharmaceutical grade nicotine products, and requires pharmacists to dispense the most addictive of these only with prescriptions. Meanwhile, every corner store can sell far more addictive and dangerous cigarettes to any adult. The FDA could immediately increase competition between cigarettes and clean nicotine products by approving available nicotine products for over-the-counter sales to adults. Similarly permissive regulation of cigarettes and addictive nicotine products will reduce tobacco use and improve smokers' health, but increase nicotine use in the population. Fortunately, restricted youth access and accurate labeling of nicotine's absolute risks will dissuade many non-smokers from experimenting with it, while accurate depiction of its risks relative to cigarette smoking will encourage many smokers to switch. The FDA could take a series of small steps that might ultimately replace a large proportion of cigarette smoking with equally addictive nicotine products, without risking serious public health setbacks. Vaccine, methadone, and injury prevention policies establish relevant public health precedents. SUMMARY: Cigarettes, or an equally addictive alternative, will be a permanent and common product in most societies. Regulations restricting only the safest addictive nicotine products are hard to justify. Addictive nicotine compliments other tobacco control strategies. Modern tobacco control policies are applicable to addictive nicotine. Controlled trials and test market studies are urgently needed to evaluate addictive nicotine as an alternative to smoking. Meanwhile, legislators should preserve the Food and Drug Administration's option to permit non-prescription sales of addictive nicotine.

The effect of cigarette price increase on the cigarette consumption in Taiwan: evidence from the National Health Interview Surveys on cigarette consumption.

BACKGROUND: This study uses cigarette price elasticity to evaluate the effect of a new excise tax increase on cigarette consumption and to investigate responses from various types of smokers. METHODS: Our sample consisted of current smokers between 17 and 69 years old interviewed during an annual face-to-face survey conducted by Taiwan National Health Research Institutes between 2000 to 2003. We used Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) procedure to estimate double logarithmic function of cigarette demand and cigarette price elasticity. RESULTS: In 2002, after Taiwan had enacted the new tax scheme, cigarette price elasticity in Taiwan was found to be -0.5274. The new tax scheme brought about an average annual 13.27 packs/person (10.5%) reduction in cigarette consumption. Using the cigarette price elasticity estimate from -0.309 in 2003, we calculated that if the Health and Welfare Tax were increased by another NT 3 dollars per pack and cigarette producers shifted this increase to the consumers, cigarette consumption would be reduced by 2.47 packs/person (2.2%). The value of the estimated cigarette price elasticity is smaller than one, meaning that the tax will not only reduce cigarette consumption but it will also generate additional tax revenues. Male smokers who had no income or who smoked light cigarettes were found to be more responsive to changes in cigarette price. CONCLUSIONS: An additional tax added to the cost of cigarettes would bring about a reduction in cigarette consumption and increased tax revenues. It would also help reduce incidents smoking-related illnesses. The additional tax revenues generated by the tax increase could be used to offset the current financial deficiency of Taiwan's National Health Insurance program and provide better public services.

Marketing to America's youth: evidence from corporate documents.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the claim that the tobacco industry does not market its products to youth. DESIGN: The data for this study come from tobacco industry documents collected from the tobacco industry's document websites, presently linked at http://www.tobaccoarchives.com. The websites were searched using "request for production" (RFP) codes, specified keyword searches, and serendipitous terms identified in document citations found with RFP and keyword searches. RESULTS: Industry documents show that the cigarette manufacturers carefully monitored the smoking habits of teenagers over the past several decades. Candid quotes from industry executives refer to youth as a source of sales and as fundamental to the survival of the tobacco industry. The documents reveal that the features of cigarette brands (that is, use of filters, low tar, bland taste, etc), packaging (that is, size, colour and design), and advertising (that is, media placements and themes and imagery) were developed specifically to appeal to new smokers (that is, teenagers). Evidence also indicates that relevant youth oriented marketing documents may have been destroyed and that the language used in some of the more recent documents may have been sanitised to cover up efforts to market to youth. CONCLUSIONS: The tobacco industry's internal documents reveal an undeniable interest in marketing cigarettes to underage smokers. The industry's marketing approaches run counter to and predicate methods for tobacco prevention: (1) keep the price of the product high; (2) keep product placements and advertising away from schools and other areas with a high volume of youth traffic; (3) make cigarette advertising (that is, themes and visual images) unappealing to youth; (4) make product packaging unappealing to youth; and (5) design the product so it is not easy to inhale.